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'''Zinc''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈzɪŋk/}}, from {{lang-de|Zink}}) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Zn''' and [[atomic number]] 30.
  
'''Zinc''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈzɪŋk/}}, from {{lang-de|Zink}}) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Zn''' and [[atomic number]] 30.
   
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== Biological role ==
  
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Zinc is an essential element, necessary for sustaining all life. It is estimated that 3000 of the hundreds of thousands of proteins in the human body contain zinc [[prosthetic groups]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In addition, there are over a dozen types of cells in the human body that secrete zinc ions, and the roles of these secreted zinc signals in medicine and health are now being actively studied. Intriguingly, brain cells in the mammalian forebrain are one type of cell that secretes zinc, along with its other neuronal messenger substances. Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine are other types that secrete zinc.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
  
   
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===Dietary supplement===
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Zinc is an activator of certain enzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is important in the transport of carbon dioxide in vertebrate blood. It is also required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and anaerobic respiration (alcoholic fermentation).{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
  
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[[File:Zinc 50 mg.jpg|thumb|175px|[[General Nutrition Centers|GNC]] zinc 50 mg tablets ([[Australia|AU]])]]
   
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Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and [[Dietary mineral|mineral]] supplements.<ref name="DiSilvestro2004">{{Cite book|last=DiSilvestro|first=Robert A.|title=Handbook of Minerals as Nutritional Supplements|year=2004|publisher=CRC Press|pages=135, 155|isbn=0849316529}}</ref> Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc acetate, and [[zinc gluconate]].<ref name="DiSilvestro2004"/> It is believed to possess [[antioxidant]] properties, which may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and muscles of the body; studies differ as to its effectiveness.<ref name="Milbury2008">{{Cite book|last=Milbury|first=Paul E.|coauthors=Richer, Alice C.| title=Understanding the Antioxidant Controversy: Scrutinizing the "fountain of Youth"|page=99|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0275993760|year=2008}}</ref> Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an injury.<ref name="Milbury2008"/>
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===Food sources===
  
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Zinc is found in oysters, and to a far lesser degree in most animal proteins, beans, nuts, whole grains, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds. [[Phytates]], which are found in whole grain breads, cereals, legumes and other products, have been known to decrease zinc absorption. Clinical studies have found that zinc, combined with [[antioxidants]], may delay progression of age-related [[macular degeneration]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, but the effect is extremely small and not likely to be clinically important. Significant dietary intake of zinc has also recently been shown to impede the onset of flu{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. [[Soil conservation]] analyzes the vegetative uptake of naturally occurring zinc in many soil types.
  
   
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[[File:Zinc gluconate structure.svg|thumb|left|[[Zinc gluconate]] is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a [[dietary supplement]].|alt=Skeletal chemical formula of a planar compound featuring a Zn atom in the center, symmetrically bonded to four oxygens. Those oxygens are further connected to linear COH chains.]]
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The (US) [[Reference Daily Intake|recommended dietary allowance]] of zinc from puberty on is 11mg for males and 8mg for females, with higher amounts recommended during pregnancy and lactation.
  
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Zinc preparations can protect against [[sunburn]] in the summer and [[windburn]] in the winter.<ref name="Emsley2001p501"/> Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area ([[perineum]]) with each diaper change, it can protect against [[diaper rash]].<ref name="Emsley2001p501"/>
   
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The [[Age-Related Eye Disease Study]] determined that zinc can be part of an effective treatment for [[age-related macular degeneration]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation With Vitamins C and E, Beta Carotene, and Zinc for Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Vision Loss|author=Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group|journal=Arch Ophthalmology|year=2001|volume=119|issue=10|page=1417|pmid=11594942|pmc=1462955}}</ref> Zinc supplementation is an effective treatment for [[acrodermatitis enteropathica]], a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to babies born with it.<ref name="Emsley2001p501"/>
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===Zinc deficiency===
  
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Zinc deficiency results from inadequate intake of zinc, or inadequate absorption of zinc into the body. Signs of zinc deficiency includes hair loss, [[skin]] lesions, [[diarrhea]], wasting of body tissues, and, eventually, death. Eyesight, taste, smell and memory are also connected with zinc. A deficiency in zinc can cause malfunctions of these organs and functions. Congenital abnormalities causing zinc deficiency may lead to a disease called [[Acrodermatitis enteropathica]].
 
   
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==Biological role==
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Obtaining a sufficient zinc intake during [[pregnancy]] and in young children is a very real problem, especially among those who cannot afford a good and varied diet. [[Brain]] development is stunted by zinc insufficiency in utero and in youth.
  
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Zinc is an essential [[trace element]], necessary for plants,<ref name=Broadley2007>{{cite journal|last=Broadley|first=M. R.|coauthors=White, P. J.; Hammond, J. P.; Zelko I.; Lux A.|title=Zinc in plants|journal=New Phytologist|volume=173|page=677|year=2007|pmid=17286818|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.01996.x|issue=4}}</ref> animals,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Prasad A. S.|title=Zinc in human health: effect of zinc on immune cells|journal=Mol. Med.|volume=14|page=353|year=2008|pmid=18385818|pmc=2277319|doi=10.2119/2008-00033.Prasad|issue=5–6}}</ref> and [[microorganism]]s.<ref>Zinc's role in microorganisms is particularly reviewed in: {{cite journal|author=Sugarman B|title=Zinc and infection|journal=Review of Infectious Diseases|volume=5|page=137|year=1983|pmid=6338570|issue=1}}</ref> Zinc is found in nearly 100 specific [[enzyme]]s<ref name="NRC2000p443"/> (other sources say 300), serves as structural ions in [[transcription factor]]s and is stored and transferred in [[metallothionein]]s.<ref name="Cotton1999bio">{{harvnb|Cotton|1999|pp=625–629}}</ref> It is "typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms" after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all [[Enzyme#Naming_conventions|enzyme classes]].<ref name=Broadley2007/>
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[[Image:Foodstuff-containing-Zinc.jpg|thumb|250px|Foods and spices that contain the essential mineral zinc]]
  
   
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In proteins, Zn ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine and histidine.<ref name="pmid19177216">{{cite journal|author = Brandt, Erik G. ''et al.''|title = Molecular dynamics study of zinc binding to cysteines in a peptide mimic of the alcohol dehydrogenase structural zinc site|journal = Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. |volume = 11|issue = 6|pages = 975–83|year = 2009|pmid = 19177216|doi = 10.1039/b815482a|bibcode = 2009PCCP...11..975B }}</ref> The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins (as well as that of other transition metals) is difficult.<ref name="pmid19177216"/>
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===Zinc toxicity===
  
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Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, too much zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just [[micromolar]] amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all daphnia in water. <ref>Muyssen et al., (Aquat Toxicol. 2006)</ref> Swallowing an American one cent piece (98% zinc) can also cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach. <ref>Bothwell and Mair, PEDIATRICS 2003</ref> Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of US pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe [[hemolytic anemia]]. <ref>Stowe CM, Nelson R, Werdin R, et al: Zinc phosphide poisoning in dogs. JAVMA 173:270, 1978</ref>
  
   
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There are 2–4&nbsp;grams of zinc<ref name=Rink2000>{{cite journal|last=Rink|first =L.|coauthor=Gabriel P.|title=Zinc and the immune system|journal=Proc Nutr Soc|volume=59|page=541|year=2000|pmid=11115789|doi=10.1017/S0029665100000781|issue=4}}</ref> distributed throughout the human body. Most zinc is in the brain, muscle, bones, kidney, and liver, with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wapnir|first=Raul A.|title=Protein Nutrition and Mineral Absorption|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|year=1990|isbn=0849352274|url=http://books.google.com/?id=qfKdaCoZS18C}}</ref><!-- page 131 --> Semen is particularly rich in zinc, which is a key factor in [[prostate gland]] function and [[reproductive organ]] growth.<ref name=Berdanier2007>{{cite book|last=Berdanier|first=Carolyn D.|coauthors=Dwyer, Johanna T.; Feldman, Elaine B.|title=Handbook of Nutrition and Food|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|year=2007|isbn=0849392187|url=http://books.google.com/?id=PJpieIePsmUC}}</ref><!-- page 210 -->
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===Immune system===
  
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Zinc salts are effective against pathogens in direct application. Gastrointestinal infections are also strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the GI tract, or to absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc) or both.
  
   
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In humans, zinc plays "ubiquitous biological roles".<ref name=Hambridge2007/> It interacts with "a wide range of organic [[ligand]]s",<ref name=Hambridge2007/> and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA, [[signal transduction]], and [[gene expression]]. It also regulates [[apoptosis]]. A 2006 study estimated that about 10% of human proteins (2800) potentially bind zinc, in addition to hundreds which transport and traffic zinc; a similar ''[[in silico]]'' study in the plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' found 2367 zinc-related proteins.<ref name=Broadley2007/>
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The direct effect of zinc (as in lozenges) on bacteria and viruses is also well-established, and has been used since at least 2000 BC, from when zinc salts in palliative salves are documented. However, exactly how to deliver zinc salts against pathogens without injuring one's own tissues is still being investigated.
  
   
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In the brain, zinc is stored in specific [[synaptic vesicles]] by [[glutamatergic]] neurons<ref name="Bitanihirwe">{{cite journal|author=Bitanihirwe BK, Cunningham MG|year=2009|title=Zinc: The brain's dark horse|journal=Synapse|volume=63|page=1029|pmid=19623531|issue=11|doi=10.1002/syn.20683}}</ref> and can "modulate brain excitability".<ref name=Hambridge2007/> It plays a key role in [[synaptic plasticity]] and so in learning.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nakashima AS, Dyck RH|year=2009|title=Zinc and cortical plasticity|journal=Brain Res Rev|volume=59|page=347|doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.10.003|pmid=19026685|issue=2}}</ref> However it has been called "the brain's dark horse"<ref name="Bitanihirwe"/> since it also can be a [[neurotoxin]], suggesting zinc [[homeostasis]] plays a critical role in normal functioning of the brain and [[central nervous system]].<ref name="Bitanihirwe"/>
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==History==
  
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[[Image:ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Zinc]]
  
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In ancient [[India]] the production of zinc metal was very common. Many mine sites of Zawarmaala were active even during 1300-1000 BC. There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the [[Charaka Samhita]] (300 BC). The [[Rasaratna Samuccaya]] (800 AD) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose. <ref>http://metalrg.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/zn.html</ref> Zinc alloys have been used for centuries, as brass goods dating to [[1000s BC|1000]]–[[1400s BC|1400 BC]] have been found in [[Israel (region)|Israel]] and zinc objects with 87% zinc have been found in prehistoric [[Transylvania]]. Because of the low boiling point and high chemical reactivity of this metal (isolated zinc would tend to go up the chimney rather than be captured), the true nature of this metal was not understood in ancient times.
 
   
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===Enzymes===
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The manufacture of [[brass]] was known to the [[Ancient Rome|Ebi]] by about [[30 BC]], using a technique where [[Calamine (mineral)|calamine]] and [[copper]] were heated together in a crucible. The [[zinc oxide]]s in calamine were reduced, and the free zinc metal was trapped by the copper, forming an [[alloy]]. The resulting [[calamine brass]] was either cast or hammered into shape.
  
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[[File:Carbonic anhydrase.png|thumb|[[Ribbon diagram]] of human [[carbonic anhydrase]] II, with zinc atom visible in the center|alt=Interconnected stripes, mostly of yellow and blue color with a few red segments.]]
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[[File:Zinc finger rendered.png|thumb|left|[[Zinc fingers]] help read DNA sequences.|alt=A twisted band, with one side painted blue and another gray. Its two ends are connected through some chemical species to a green atom (zinc).]]
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Zinc is an efficient [[Lewis acid]], making it a useful catalytic agent in [[hydroxylation]] and other enzymatic reactions.<ref name=NRC2000p443>{{harvnb|NRC|2000|p=443}}</ref> The metal also has a flexible [[coordination geometry]], which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift [[protein structure|conformation]]s to perform biological reactions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stipanuk|first=Martha H.|title=Biochemical, Physiological & Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition|year=2006|pages=1043–1067|publisher=W. B. Saunders Company|isbn=9780721644523}}</ref> Two examples of zinc-containing enzymes are [[carbonic anhydrase]] and [[carboxypeptidase]], which are vital to the processes of [[carbon dioxide]] ({{chem|CO|2}}) regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively.<ref name="Greenwood1997p1224—1225">{{harvnb|Greenwood|1997|pp=1224–1225}}</ref>
   
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In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase converts {{chem|CO|2}} into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into {{chem|CO|2}} for exhalation through the lungs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohen|first=Amnon|coauthors=Limbach, Hans-Heinrich|title=Isotope Effects in Chemistry and Biology|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|year=2006|page=850|isbn=0824724496|url=http://books.google.com/?id=7EiIqrRBBQgC}}</ref> Without this enzyme, this conversion would occur about one million times slower<ref name="Greenwood1997p1225">{{harvnb|Greenwood|1997|p=1225}}</ref> at the normal blood [[pH]] of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more.<ref name="Cotton1999p627">{{harvnb|Cotton|1999|p=627}}</ref> The non-related β-carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole [[acetic acid]] (auxin) and [[anaerobic respiration]] (alcoholic fermentation).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Effects of indole-3-acetic acid and zinc on the growth, osmotic potential and soluble carbon and nitrogen components of soybean plants growing under water deficit|last=Gadallah|first=M. A. A.|journal=Journal of Arid Environments|volume=44|year=2000|issue=4|page=451|doi=10.1006/jare.1999.0610}}</ref>
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Smelting and extraction of impure forms of zinc was accomplished as early as [[1000]] AD in [[India]] and [[China]]. In the West, impure zinc as a remnant in melting ovens was known since Antiquity, but usually discarded as worthless. Strabo mentions it as ''pseudo-arguros'' &mdash; "mock silver". The [[Berne zinc tablet]] is a votive plaque dating to [[Roman Gaul]], probably made from such zinc remnants. The discovery of pure metallic zinc is most often credited to the German [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf|Andreas Marggraf]], in the year [[1746]], though the whole story is disputed.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
  
   
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Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins. A [[coordinate covalent bond]] is formed between the terminal peptide and a C=O group attached to zinc, which gives the carbon a positive charge. This helps to create a [[hydrophobic]] pocket on the enzyme near the zinc, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested.<ref name="Greenwood1997p1224—1225"/>
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The English metallurgist Libavius received in 1597 a quantity of zinc metal in its pure form, which was unknown in the West before then. Libavius identified it as Indian/Malabar lead. [[Paracelsus]] ([[1616]]) was credited with the name "zinc". [[Postlewayt]]'s Universal Dictionary, the most authentic source of all technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751.
 
   
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===Other proteins===
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In [[1738]], [[William Champion (metallurgist)|William Champion]] is credited with patenting in [[Britain]] a process to extract zinc from calamine in a smelter, a technology he acquired after visiting Zawar zinc mines in [[Rajasthan]]. His first patent was rejected by the patent court on grounds of plagiarising the technology common in India. However he was granted the patent on his second submission of patent approval.
 
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Zinc serves a purely structural role in [[zinc finger]]s, twists and clusters.<ref name="Cotton1997p628">{{harvnb|Cotton|1997|p=628}}</ref> Zinc fingers form parts of some [[transcription factor]]s, which are proteins that recognize [[DNA sequence|DNA base sequences]] during the replication and transcription of [[DNA]]. Each of the nine or ten {{chem|Zn|2+}} ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger's structure by coordinately binding to four [[amino acid]]s in the transcription factor.<ref name="Greenwood1997p1225"/> The transcription factor wraps around the DNA helix and uses its fingers to accurately bind to the DNA sequence.
   
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In [[blood plasma]], zinc is bound to and transported by [[albumin]] (60%, low-affinity) and [[transferrin]] (10%).<ref name=Rink2000/> Since transferrin also transports iron, excessive iron reduces zinc absorption, and vice-versa. A similar reaction occurs with copper.<ref Name=Whitney2005>{{Cite book|first=Eleanor Noss|last=Whitney|coauthor=Rolfes, Sharon Rady|year=2005|title=Understanding Nutrition|pages=447–450|edition=10th|publisher=Thomson Learning|isbn=9781428818934}}</ref> The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake.<ref name=NRC2000p447>{{harvnb|NRC|2000|p=447}}</ref> Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine use [[Cell signaling|zinc signaling]] as one way to communicate with other cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hershfinkel|first=Michal|coauthors=Silverman, William F.; Sekler, Israel|title=The Zinc Sensing Receptor, a Link Between Zinc and Cell Signaling|journal=Molecular Medicine|volume=13|year=2007|page=331|doi= 10.1007/s10653-009-9255-4 |pmid=17728842|issue=7–8|pmc=1952663}}</ref>
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Before the discovery of the [[zinc sulfide]] [[flotation process|flotation]] technique, [[calamine]] was the mineral source of zinc metal.
  
   
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Zinc may be held in [[metallothionein]] reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals.<ref name="Cotton1999p629">{{harvnb|Cotton|1999|p=629}}</ref> Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15–40%.<ref name=Blake2007>{{Cite book|title=Vitamins and Minerals Demystified|last=Blake|first=Steve|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2007|isbn=0071489010|page=242}}</ref> However, inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals.<ref name=Fosmire1990/>
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<div class="noprint">{{wide image|Blood values sorted by mass and molar concentration.png|1150px|[[Reference ranges for blood tests]], showing zinc in purple at center-right}}</div>
   
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{{clear}}
   
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== Abundance ==
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===Dietary intake===
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[[File:Foodstuff-containing-Zinc.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Recommended Dietary Allowance|Foods & spices]] containing zinc|alt=Several plates full of various cereals, fruits and vegetables on a table.]]
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:''See also: [[:Category:Zinc minerals|Zinc minerals]]
  
   
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In the U.S., the [[Recommended Dietary Allowance]] (RDA) is 8&nbsp;mg/day for women and 11&nbsp;mg/day for men.<ref name=rda>{{cite book|author1=Connie W. Bales|author2=Christine Seel Ritchie|title=Handbook of Clinical Nutrition and Aging|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jtsBbP2087wC&pg=PA151|accessdate=23 June 2011|date=21 May 2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781603273848|pages=151–}}</ref> Median intake in the U.S. around 2000 was 9&nbsp;mg/day for women and 14&nbsp;mg/day in men.<ref name=NRC2000p442/> Red meats, especially [[beef]], [[lamb and mutton|lamb]] and [[Liver#As_food|liver]] have some of the highest concentrations of zinc in food.<ref name=Berdanier2007/><!-- page 195 -->
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Zinc is the 23rd most abundant element in the [[Earth's crust]]. The most heavily mined [[ore]]s (sphalerite) tend to contain roughly 10% [[iron]] as well as 40–50% zinc. Minerals from which zinc is extracted include [[sphalerite]] (zinc sulfide), [[smithsonite]] (zinc carbonate), [[hemimorphite]] (zinc silicate), and [[franklinite]] (a zinc spinel).
  
   
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The concentration of zinc in plants varies based on levels of the element in soil. When there is adequate zinc in the soil, the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran) and various seeds ([[sesame]], [[poppy]], [[alfalfa]], [[celery]], [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]]).<ref name=Ensminger1993>{{Cite book|last=Ensminger|first=Audrey H.|coauthors=Konlande, James E.|title=Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|year=1993|edition=2nd|pages=2368–2369|isbn=0849389801|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XMA9gYIj-C4C}}</ref> Zinc is also found in [[bean]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[almond]]s, [[whole grain]]s, [[pumpkin seed]]s, [[sunflower seed]]s and [[blackcurrant]].<ref name="USDA_Zn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR20/nutrlist/sr20w309.pdf|title=Zinc content of selected foods per common measure|accessdate=2007-12-06|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]]|work=USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20}}</ref>
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== Zinc mining and processing ==
  
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There are zinc mines throughout the world, with the largest producers being [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[China]], [[Peru]] and the [[U.S.A.]] Mines and refiners in [[Europe]] include Umicore in [[Belgium]], [[Hill of Tara|Tara]], Galmoy and Lisheen in [[Ireland]], and [[Zinkgruvan]] in [[Sweden]].
  
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Zinc metal is produced using [[extractive metallurgy]]. [[Zinc sulfide]] ([[sphalerite]]) minerals are concentrated using the [[froth flotation]] method and then usually roasted using [[pyrometallurgy]] to oxidise the zinc sulfide to zinc oxide. The zinc oxide is leached in several stages of increasingly stronger sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). Iron is usually rejected as Jarosite or goethite, removing other impurities at the same time. The final purification uses zinc dust to remove copper, cadmium and cobalt. The metal is then extracted from the solution by electrowinning as cathodic deposits. Zinc cathodes can be directly cast or alloyed with aluminium.
  
   
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Other sources include [[food fortification|fortified food]] and [[dietary supplement]]s, which come in various forms. A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide, one of the most common supplements in the United States, and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body.<ref name=Allen1998/> This review cited studies which found low plasma zinc concentrations after zinc oxide and zinc carbonate were consumed compared with those seen after consumption of zinc acetate and sulfate salts.<ref name=Allen1998>{{Cite journal|first=Lindsay H.|last=Allen|title=Zinc and micronutrient supplements for children|journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=68|issue=2 Suppl|page=495S|year=1998|pmid=9701167|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/68/2/495S}}</ref> However, harmful excessive supplementation is a problem among the relatively affluent, and should probably not exceed 20&nbsp;mg/day in healthy people,<ref>{{Cite journal|last =Maret|first=W.|coauthor=Sandstead H. H.|title=Zinc requirements and the risks and benefits of zinc supplementation|journal=Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology|volume=20|page=3|year=2006|pmid=16632171|doi=10.1016/j.jtemb.2006.01.006|issue =1}}</ref> although the U.S. National Research Council set a Tolerable Upper Intake of 40&nbsp;mg/day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10026&page=442|title=Zinc – Summary|accessdate=2010-03-30|publisher=[[Institute of Medicine]], [[Food and Nutrition Board]]|work=Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001)}}</ref>
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Electrolyte solutions must be very pure for electrowinning to be at all efficient. Impurities can change the decomposition voltage enough to where the electrolysis cell produces largely hydrogen gas rather than zinc metal.<ref name="samans">Samans, Carl H.: ''Engineering Metals and their Alloys'' MacMillan 1949</ref>
  
   
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For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended zinc oxide in cereals as cheap, stable, and as easily absorbed as more expensive forms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosado|first=J. L.|title=Zinc and copper: proposed fortification levels and recommended zinc compounds|journal=Journal of Nutrition|volume=133|page=2985S|year=2003|pmid=12949397|issue=9}}</ref> A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hotz|first=C.|coauthors=DeHaene, J.; Woodhouse, L. R.; Villalpando, S.; Rivera, J. A.; King, J. C.|title=Zinc absorption from zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc oxide + EDTA, or sodium-zinc EDTA does not differ when added as fortificants to maize tortillas|journal=Journal of Nutrition|volume=135|page=1102|year=2005|pmid=15867288|issue=5}}</ref> A 1987 study found that zinc picolinate was better absorbed than zinc gluconate or zinc citrate.<ref>{{cite journal|last =Barrie|first=SA.|coauthor=Wright JV, Pizzorno JE, Kutter E, Barron PC.|title=Comparative absorption of zinc picolinate, [[zinc citrate]] and zinc gluconate in humans|journal=Agents Actions|volume=21|issue =1–2|pages=223–8|year=1987|pmid=3630857|doi =10.1007/BF01974946}}</ref> However, a study published in 2008 determined that zinc glycinate is the best absorbed of the four dietary supplement types available.<ref>{{cite journal|last=DiSilvestro|first=Robert A..|coauthor=Swan, Melinda.|title=Comparison of Four Commercially Available Zinc Supplements for Performance in a Zinc Tolerance Test|journal=The FASEB Journal |year=2008|volume=22}}</ref>
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There are two common processes for electrowinning the metal, the ''low current density'' process, and the ''Tainton high current density'' process. The former uses a 10% sulfuric acid solution as the electolyte, with current density of 270–325 amperes per square meter. The latter uses 22-28% sulfuric acid solution as the electrolyte with current density of about 1000 amperes per square meter. The latter gives better purity and has higher production capacity per volume of electrolyte, but has the disadvantage of running hotter and being more corrosive to the vessel in which it is done. In either of the electrolytic processes, each metric ton of zinc production expends about 3900 kW·h (14 MJ) of electric power.<ref name="samans"/>
  
   
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There are also several pyrometallurgical processes that reduce zinc oxide using carbon, then distill the metallic zinc from the resulting mix in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide. These include the ''Belgian-type horizontal-retort'' process, the ''New Jersey Zinc continuous vertical-retort'' process, and the ''St. Joseph Lead Company's electrothermal'' process. The Belgian process requires redistillation to remove impurities of lead, cadmium, iron, copper, and arsenic. The New Jersey process employs a fractionating column, which is absent in the Belgian process, that separates the individual impurities, where they can be sold as byproducts. The St. Joseph Lead Company process heats the zinc oxide/coke mixture by passing an electric current through it rather than by coal or gas fire.<ref name="samans"/>
  
   
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Another pyrometallurgical process is flash smelting. Then zinc oxide is obtained, usually producing zinc of lesser quality than the hydrometallurgical process.
  
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Zinc oxide treatment has much fewer applications, but high grade deposits have been successful in producing zinc from zinc oxides and zinc carbonates using [[hydrometallurgy]].
  
   
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== Alloys ==
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===Food sources===
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Zinc is found in oysters, and to a far lesser degree in most animal proteins, beans, nuts, whole grains, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds. [[Phytates]], which are found in whole grain breads, cereals, legumes and other products, have been known to decrease zinc absorption. Clinical studies have found that zinc, combined with [[antioxidants]], may delay progression of age-related [[macular degeneration]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, but the effect is extremely small and not likely to be clinically important. Significant dietary intake of zinc has also recently been shown to impede the onset of flu{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. [[Soil conservation]] analyzes the vegetative uptake of naturally occurring zinc in many soil types.
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The most widely used alloy of zinc is [[brass]], in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 9% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass, along with much smaller amounts of lead and tin. Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminum find limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminum, and magnesium are useful in die-casting. Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminum is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications where ferrous metal dies would be too expensive.<ref name="samans"/>
  
   
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The (US) [[Reference Daily Intake|recommended dietary allowance]] of zinc from puberty on is 11mg for males and 8mg for females, with higher amounts recommended during pregnancy and lactation.
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== Compounds ==
  
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:''See also: [[:category:Zinc compounds|Zinc compounds]]
  
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[[Zinc oxide]] is perhaps the best known and most widely used zinc compound, as it makes a good base for white pigments in paint. It also finds industrial use in the rubber industry, and is sold as opaque [[sunscreen]]. A variety of other zinc compounds find use industrially, such as [[zinc chloride]] (in deodorants), [[zinc pyrithione]] (anti-[[dandruff]] [[shampoo]]s), [[zinc sulfide]] (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or [[zinc diethyl]] in the organic laboratory. Roughly one quarter of all zinc output is consumed in the form of zinc compounds.
  
   
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== Isotopes ==
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===Zinc deficiency===
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Zinc deficiency results from inadequate intake of zinc, or inadequate absorption of zinc into the body. Signs of zinc deficiency includes hair loss, [[skin]] lesions, [[diarrhea]], wasting of body tissues, and, eventually, death. [[Eyesight]], [[taste]], [[smell]] and [[memory]] are also connected with zinc. A deficiency in zinc can cause malfunctions of these organs and functions. [[Congenital abnormalities]] causing zinc deficiency may lead to a disease called [[Acrodermatitis enteropathica]].
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Naturally occurring zinc is composed of the 5 stable [[isotope]]s <sup>64</sup>Zn, <sup>66</sup>Zn, <sup>67</sup>Zn, <sup>68</sup>Zn, and <sup>70</sup>Zn with <sup>64</sup>Zn being the most abundant (48.6% [[natural abundance]]). Twenty-one [[radioisotope]]s have been characterised with the most abundant and stable being <sup>65</sup>Zn with a [[half-life]] of 244.26 days, and <sup>72</sup>Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 14 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s.
  
   
  +
Obtaining a sufficient zinc intake during [[pregnancy]] and in young children is a very real problem, especially among those who cannot afford a good and varied diet. [[Brain]] development is stunted by zinc insufficiency in utero and in youth.
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Zinc has been proposed as a "[[Salted bomb|salting]]" material for [[nuclear weapon]]s ([[cobalt]] is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of [[Isotope separation|isotopically enriched]] <sup>64</sup>Zn, irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope Zn-65 with a half-life of 244 days and produce approximately 2.27 [[MeV]] of [[Gamma ray|gamma radiation]], significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] for several days. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.
  
  +
[[Image:Foodstuff-containing-Zinc.jpg|thumb|250px|Foods and spices that contain the essential mineral zinc]]
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===Zinc toxicity===
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Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, too much zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just [[micromolar]] amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all daphnia in water. <ref>Muyssen et al., (Aquat Toxicol. 2006)</ref> Swallowing an American one cent piece (98% zinc) can also cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach. <ref>Bothwell and Mair, PEDIATRICS 2003</ref> Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of US pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia. <ref>Stowe CM, Nelson R, Werdin R, et al: Zinc phosphide poisoning in dogs. JAVMA 173:270, 1978</ref>
  +
  +
==Zinc and cognition==
  +
  +
==Zinc and mental disorders==
  +
Zinc has been studied as to its role in various [[mental disorders]]
  +
  +
===Alzheimer's disease===
  +
*[[Amyloid precursor protein]]
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  +
  +
===ADHD===
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  +
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===Schizophrenia===
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  +
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===Immune system===
  +
Zinc salts are effective against pathogens in direct application. Gastrointestinal infections are also strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the GI tract, or to absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc) or both.
  +
  +
The direct effect of zinc (as in lozenges) on bacteria and viruses is also well-established, and has been used since at least 2000 BC, from when zinc salts in palliative salves are documented. However, exactly how to deliver zinc salts against pathogens without injuring one's own tissues is still being investigated.
  +
  +
==Zincs role in genetics==
  +
*[[Zinc finger]]
  +
*[[Zinc finger chimera]]
  +
*[[Zinc finger nuclease]]
  +
*[[Zinc finger protein transcription factor]]
   
 
== Precautions ==
  
== Precautions ==
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==References==
  
==References==
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*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/30.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Zinc]
  
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*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Zn/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Zinc]
  
 
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  +
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  +
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  +
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  +
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  +
*Land, P. W., & Akhtar, N. D. (1999). Experience-dependent alteration of synaptic zinc in rat somatosensory barrel cortex: Somatosensory & Motor Research Vol 16(2) 1999, 139-150.
  +
*Larson, A. A., & Kitto, K. F. (1997). Manipulations of zinc in the spinal cord, by intrathecal injection of zinc chloride, disodium-calcium-EDTA, or dipicolinic acid, alter nociceptive activity in mice: Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics Vol 282(3) Sep 1997, 1319-1325.
  +
*Lask, B., Fosson, A., Rolfe, U., & Thomas, S. (1993). Zinc deficiency and childhood-onset anorexia nervosa: Journal of Clinical Psychiatry Vol 54(2) Feb 1993, 63-66.
  +
*Lerman-Sagie, T., Statter, M., & Lerman, P. (1987). Low erythrocyte zinc content in acquired aphasia with convulsive disorder (Landau-Kleffner syndrome): Journal of Child Neurology Vol 2(1) Jan 1987, 28-30.
  +
*Lester, M. L., Horst, R. L., & Thatcher, R. W. (1986). Protective effects of zinc and calcium against heavy metal impairment of children's cognitive function: Nutrition & Behavior Vol 3(2) 1986, 145-161.
  +
*Licastro, F., Chiricolo, M., Mocchegiani, E., Fabris, N., & et al. (1994). Oral zinc supplementation in Down's syndrome subjects decreased infections and normalized some humoral and cellular immune parameters: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research Vol 38(2) Apr 1994, 149-162.
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  +
*Little, K. Y., Castellanos, X., Humphries, L. L., & Austin, J. (1989). Altered zinc metabolism in mood disorder patients: Biological Psychiatry Vol 26(6) Oct 1989, 646-648.
  +
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== External links ==
  
== External links ==
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*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/30.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Zinc]
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{{Commons|Zinc}}
  
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*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Zn/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Zinc]
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{{wiktionary|zinc}}
  
 
*[http://metalrg.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/zn.html Indian Contribution]
  
*[http://metalrg.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/zn.html Indian Contribution]
 
*[http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/zn.html History & Etymology of Zinc]
  
*[http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/zn.html History & Etymology of Zinc]
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*[http://www.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/reductions/zinc-zn.shtm Reducing Agents > Zinc]
  
*[http://www.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/reductions/zinc-zn.shtm Reducing Agents > Zinc]
 
*[http://www.zinc.org American Zinc Association] Information about the uses and properties of zinc.
  
*[http://www.zinc.org American Zinc Association] Information about the uses and properties of zinc.
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{{Elementbox_header | number=30 | symbol=Zn | name=zinc | left=[[copper]] | right=[[gallium]] | above=- | below=[[cadmium|Cd]] | color1={{Element color/Transition metals}} | color2=black }}
  
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{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
  
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{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=12 | period=4 | block=d }}
  
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{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Zn,30| bluish pale gray }}
  
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{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|65.409]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(4)]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> }}
  
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{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 2 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
  
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{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.14 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.57 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=692.68 | c=419.53 | f=787.15 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1180 | c=907 | f=1665 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 7.32 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 123.6 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.390 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 610 | 670 | 750 | 852 | 990 | (1185) | comment= }}
  
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{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1={{Element color/Transition metals}} | color2=black }}
  
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{{Elementbox_crystalstruct
 
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| hexagonal }}
  
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{{Elementbox_oxistates | 2<br />([[Amphoteric (chemistry)|amphoteric]] oxide) }}
  
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{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.65 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 906.4 | 1733.3 | 3833 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|135]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|142]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|131]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|139]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1={{Element color/Transition metals}} | color2=black }}
  
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[diamagnetism|diamagnetic]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 59.0 n}}
  
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{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 116 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 30.2 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsatrt | (rolled) 3850 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 108 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 43 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 70 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.25 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.5 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 412 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-66-6 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | color1={{Element color/Transition metals}} | color2=black }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=64 | sym=Zn | na=48.6% | n=34 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=65 | sym=Zn | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|244.26]] [[day|d]] | dm1=[[electron capture|ε]] | de1=- | pn1=65 | ps1=[[copper|Cu]] | dm2=[[gamma radiation|γ]] | de2=1.1155 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=66 | sym=Zn | na=27.9% | n=36 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=67 | sym=Zn | na=4.1% | n=37 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=68 | sym=Zn | na=18.8% | n=38 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=69 | sym=Zn | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=56.4 min | dm=[[Beta decay|β<sup>−</sup>]] | de=0.906 | pn=69 | ps=[[gallium|Ga]] }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=70 | sym=Zn | na=0.6% | n=40 }}
  
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
  
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{{Elementbox_footer | color1={{Element color/Transition metals}} | color2=black }}
  
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[[Category:Chemical elements]]
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[[Category:Metallic elements]]
 
[[Category:Dietary minerals]]
  
[[Category:Dietary minerals]]
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[[category:Electrolytes]]
 
[[Category:Zinc| ]]
  
[[Category:Zinc| ]]
   
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Latest revision as of 05:36, 26 October 2011

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Zinc (IPA: /ˈzɪŋk/, from German: Zink

) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30.

Notable characteristics

Zinc is a moderately-reactive bluish-white metal that tarnishes in moist air and burns in air with a bright greenish flame, giving off plumes of zinc oxide. It reacts with acids, alkalis and other non-metals. If not completely pure, zinc reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen. The one common oxidation state of zinc is +2. From 100 °C to 210 °C zinc metal is malleable and can easily be beaten into various shapes. Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle and will be pulverized by beating.

Applications

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper in annual production.


Dietary supplement

File:Zinc 50 mg.jpg

GNC zinc 50 mg tablets (AU)

Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and mineral supplements.[1] Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc acetate, and zinc gluconate.[1] It is believed to possess antioxidant properties, which may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and muscles of the body; studies differ as to its effectiveness.[2] Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an injury.[2]

File:Zinc gluconate structure.svg

Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary supplement.

Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the summer and windburn in the winter.[3] Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area (perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against diaper rash.[3]

The Age-Related Eye Disease Study determined that zinc can be part of an effective treatment for age-related macular degeneration.[4] Zinc supplementation is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to babies born with it.[3]

Biological role

Zinc is an essential trace element, necessary for plants,[5] animals,[6] and microorganisms.[7] Zinc is found in nearly 100 specific enzymes[8] (other sources say 300), serves as structural ions in transcription factors and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins.[9] It is "typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms" after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.[5]

In proteins, Zn ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine and histidine.[10] The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins (as well as that of other transition metals) is difficult.[10]

There are 2–4 grams of zinc[11] distributed throughout the human body. Most zinc is in the brain, muscle, bones, kidney, and liver, with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye.[12] Semen is particularly rich in zinc, which is a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth.[13]

In humans, zinc plays "ubiquitous biological roles".[14] It interacts with "a wide range of organic ligands",[14] and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA, signal transduction, and gene expression. It also regulates apoptosis. A 2006 study estimated that about 10% of human proteins (2800) potentially bind zinc, in addition to hundreds which transport and traffic zinc; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc-related proteins.[5]

In the brain, zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons[15] and can "modulate brain excitability".[14] It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning.[16] However it has been called "the brain's dark horse"[15] since it also can be a neurotoxin, suggesting zinc homeostasis plays a critical role in normal functioning of the brain and central nervous system.[15]

Enzymes

File:Carbonic anhydrase.png

Ribbon diagram of human carbonic anhydrase II, with zinc atom visible in the center

File:Zinc finger rendered.png

Zinc fingers help read DNA sequences.

Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid, making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions.[8] The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry, which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions.[17] Two examples of zinc-containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase, which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide (CO2) regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively.[18]

In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase converts CO2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO2 for exhalation through the lungs.[19] Without this enzyme, this conversion would occur about one million times slower[20] at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more.[21] The non-related β-carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and anaerobic respiration (alcoholic fermentation).[22]

Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins. A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C=O group attached to zinc, which gives the carbon a positive charge. This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested.[18]

Other proteins

Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers, twists and clusters.[23] Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors, which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA. Each of the nine or ten Zn2+ ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger's structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor.[20] The transcription factor wraps around the DNA helix and uses its fingers to accurately bind to the DNA sequence.

In blood plasma, zinc is bound to and transported by albumin (60%, low-affinity) and transferrin (10%).[11] Since transferrin also transports iron, excessive iron reduces zinc absorption, and vice-versa. A similar reaction occurs with copper.[24] The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake.[25] Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine use zinc signaling as one way to communicate with other cells.[26]

Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals.[27] Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15–40%.[28] However, inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals.[29]

Template:Wide image

Dietary intake

Several plates full of various cereals, fruits and vegetables on a table.

Foods & spices containing zinc

In the U.S., the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 8 mg/day for women and 11 mg/day for men.[30] Median intake in the U.S. around 2000 was 9 mg/day for women and 14 mg/day in men.[31] Red meats, especially beef, lamb and liver have some of the highest concentrations of zinc in food.[13]

The concentration of zinc in plants varies based on levels of the element in soil. When there is adequate zinc in the soil, the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran) and various seeds (sesame, poppy, alfalfa, celery, mustard).[32] Zinc is also found in beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds and blackcurrant.[33]

Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements, which come in various forms. A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide, one of the most common supplements in the United States, and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body.[34] This review cited studies which found low plasma zinc concentrations after zinc oxide and zinc carbonate were consumed compared with those seen after consumption of zinc acetate and sulfate salts.[34] However, harmful excessive supplementation is a problem among the relatively affluent, and should probably not exceed 20 mg/day in healthy people,[35] although the U.S. National Research Council set a Tolerable Upper Intake of 40 mg/day.[36]

For fortification, however, a 2003 review recommended zinc oxide in cereals as cheap, stable, and as easily absorbed as more expensive forms.[37] A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc, including oxide and sulfate, did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas.[38] A 1987 study found that zinc picolinate was better absorbed than zinc gluconate or zinc citrate.[39] However, a study published in 2008 determined that zinc glycinate is the best absorbed of the four dietary supplement types available.[40]


Food sources

Zinc is found in oysters, and to a far lesser degree in most animal proteins, beans, nuts, whole grains, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds. Phytates, which are found in whole grain breads, cereals, legumes and other products, have been known to decrease zinc absorption. Clinical studies have found that zinc, combined with antioxidants, may delay progression of age-related macular degeneration[How to reference and link to summary or text], but the effect is extremely small and not likely to be clinically important. Significant dietary intake of zinc has also recently been shown to impede the onset of flu[How to reference and link to summary or text]. Soil conservation analyzes the vegetative uptake of naturally occurring zinc in many soil types.

The (US) recommended dietary allowance of zinc from puberty on is 11mg for males and 8mg for females, with higher amounts recommended during pregnancy and lactation.

Zinc deficiency

Zinc deficiency results from inadequate intake of zinc, or inadequate absorption of zinc into the body. Signs of zinc deficiency includes hair loss, skin lesions, diarrhea, wasting of body tissues, and, eventually, death. Eyesight, taste, smell and memory are also connected with zinc. A deficiency in zinc can cause malfunctions of these organs and functions. Congenital abnormalities causing zinc deficiency may lead to a disease called Acrodermatitis enteropathica.

Obtaining a sufficient zinc intake during pregnancy and in young children is a very real problem, especially among those who cannot afford a good and varied diet. Brain development is stunted by zinc insufficiency in utero and in youth.

Foodstuff-containing-Zinc

Foods and spices that contain the essential mineral zinc

Zinc toxicity

Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, too much zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all daphnia in water. [41] Swallowing an American one cent piece (98% zinc) can also cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach. [42] Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of US pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia. [43]

Zinc and cognition

Zinc and mental disorders

Zinc has been studied as to its role in various mental disorders

Alzheimer's disease


ADHD

Schizophrenia

Immune system

Zinc salts are effective against pathogens in direct application. Gastrointestinal infections are also strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the GI tract, or to absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc) or both.

The direct effect of zinc (as in lozenges) on bacteria and viruses is also well-established, and has been used since at least 2000 BC, from when zinc salts in palliative salves are documented. However, exactly how to deliver zinc salts against pathogens without injuring one's own tissues is still being investigated.

Zincs role in genetics

  • Zinc finger
  • Zinc finger chimera
  • Zinc finger nuclease
  • Zinc finger protein transcription factor

Precautions

Metallic zinc is not considered to be toxic, but free zinc ions in solution (like copper or iron ions) are highly toxic. There is also a condition called zinc shakes or zinc chills (see metal fume fever) that can be induced by the inhalation of freshly formed zinc oxide formed during the welding of galvanized materials. Excessive intake of zinc can promote deficiency in other dietary minerals.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 DiSilvestro, Robert A. (2004). Handbook of Minerals as Nutritional Supplements, 135, 155, CRC Press.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Milbury, Paul E.; Richer, Alice C. (2008). Understanding the Antioxidant Controversy: Scrutinizing the "fountain of Youth", Greenwood Publishing Group.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Emsley2001p501
  4. ↑ Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group (2001). A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation With Vitamins C and E, Beta Carotene, and Zinc for Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Vision Loss. Arch Ophthalmology 119 (10).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Broadley, M. R., White, P. J.; Hammond, J. P.; Zelko I.; Lux A. (2007). Zinc in plants. New Phytologist 173 (4).
  6. ↑ Prasad A. S. (2008). Zinc in human health: effect of zinc on immune cells. Mol. Med. 14 (5–6).
  7. ↑ Zinc's role in microorganisms is particularly reviewed in: Sugarman B (1983). Zinc and infection. Review of Infectious Diseases 5 (1).
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 NRC 2000, p. 443
  9. ↑ Cotton 1999, pp. 625–629
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Brandt, Erik G. et al. (2009). Molecular dynamics study of zinc binding to cysteines in a peptide mimic of the alcohol dehydrogenase structural zinc site. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 11 (6): 975–83.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Rink, L. (2000). Zinc and the immune system. Proc Nutr Soc 59 (4).
  12. ↑ Wapnir, Raul A. (1990). Protein Nutrition and Mineral Absorption, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Berdanier, Carolyn D.; Dwyer, Johanna T.; Feldman, Elaine B. (2007). Handbook of Nutrition and Food, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Hambridge2007
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Bitanihirwe BK, Cunningham MG (2009). Zinc: The brain's dark horse. Synapse 63 (11).
  16. ↑ Nakashima AS, Dyck RH (2009). Zinc and cortical plasticity. Brain Res Rev 59 (2).
  17. ↑ Stipanuk, Martha H. (2006). Biochemical, Physiological & Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition, 1043–1067, W. B. Saunders Company.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Greenwood 1997, pp. 1224–1225
  19. ↑ Kohen, Amnon; Limbach, Hans-Heinrich (2006). Isotope Effects in Chemistry and Biology, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Greenwood 1997, p. 1225
  21. ↑ Cotton 1999, p. 627
  22. ↑ Gadallah, M. A. A. (2000). Effects of indole-3-acetic acid and zinc on the growth, osmotic potential and soluble carbon and nitrogen components of soybean plants growing under water deficit. Journal of Arid Environments 44 (4).
  23. ↑ Cotton 1997, p. 628
  24. ↑ Whitney, Eleanor Noss (2005). Understanding Nutrition, 10th, 447–450, Thomson Learning.
  25. ↑ NRC 2000, p. 447
  26. ↑ Hershfinkel, Michal, Silverman, William F.; Sekler, Israel (2007). The Zinc Sensing Receptor, a Link Between Zinc and Cell Signaling. Molecular Medicine 13 (7–8).
  27. ↑ Cotton 1999, p. 629
  28. ↑ Blake, Steve (2007). Vitamins and Minerals Demystified, McGraw-Hill Professional.
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Fosmire1990
  30. ↑ (21 May 2009) Handbook of Clinical Nutrition and Aging, 151–, Springer. URL accessed 23 June 2011.
  31. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NRC2000p442
  32. ↑ Ensminger, Audrey H.; Konlande, James E. (1993). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, 2nd, 2368–2369, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
  33. ↑ Zinc content of selected foods per common measure. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20. United States Department of Agriculture. URL accessed on 2007-12-06.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Allen, Lindsay H. (1998). Zinc and micronutrient supplements for children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68 (2 Suppl).
  35. ↑ Maret, W. (2006). Zinc requirements and the risks and benefits of zinc supplementation. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 20 (1).
  36. ↑ Zinc – Summary. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. URL accessed on 2010-03-30.
  37. ↑ Rosado, J. L. (2003). Zinc and copper: proposed fortification levels and recommended zinc compounds. Journal of Nutrition 133 (9).
  38. ↑ Hotz, C., DeHaene, J.; Woodhouse, L. R.; Villalpando, S.; Rivera, J. A.; King, J. C. (2005). Zinc absorption from zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, zinc oxide + EDTA, or sodium-zinc EDTA does not differ when added as fortificants to maize tortillas. Journal of Nutrition 135 (5).
  39. ↑ Barrie, SA. (1987). Comparative absorption of zinc picolinate, zinc citrate and zinc gluconate in humans. Agents Actions 21 (1–2): 223–8.
  40. ↑ DiSilvestro, Robert A.. (2008). Comparison of Four Commercially Available Zinc Supplements for Performance in a Zinc Tolerance Test. The FASEB Journal 22.
  41. ↑ Muyssen et al., (Aquat Toxicol. 2006)
  42. ↑ Bothwell and Mair, PEDIATRICS 2003
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