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'''Vasoactive intestinal peptide''' also known as the '''vasoactive intestinal polypeptide''' or '''VIP''' is a [[peptide hormone]] containing 28 [[amino acid]] [[residue (chemistry)|residue]]s.
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'''Vasoactive intestinal peptide''' ('''VIP''', also '''polypeptide''') is a [[peptide hormone]] containing 28 [[amino acid]] [[residue (chemistry)|residue]]s and is produced in many areas of the [[human body]] including the [[gut]], [[pancreas]] and [[suprachiasmatic nuclei]] of the [[hypothalamus]] in the [[brain]].<ref name="pmid6129023">{{cite journal | author = Fahrenkrug J, Emson PC | title = Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: functional aspects | journal = Br. Med. Bull. | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 265–70 | year = 1982 | month = September | pmid = 6129023 | doi = | url = http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6129023 | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid2872248">{{cite journal | author = Said SI | title = Vasoactive intestinal peptide | journal = J. Endocrinol. Invest. | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 191–200 | year = 1986 | month = April | pmid = 2872248 | doi = | url = | issn = }}</ref> In humans, the vasoactive intestinal peptide is encoded by the ''VIP'' [[gene]].<ref name="pmid3025882">{{cite journal | author = Linder S, Barkhem T, Norberg A, Persson H, Schalling M, Hökfelt T, Magnusson G | title = Structure and expression of the gene encoding the vasoactive intestinal peptide precursor | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 605–9 | year = 1987 | month = January | pmid = 3025882 | pmc = 304259 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.84.2.605| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3025882 }}</ref>
  
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VIP is neuropeptide which belongs to a glucagon/secretin superfamily, the ligand of class II G protein-coupled receptors.<ref> {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21439408}}</ref>
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VIP is produced in many tissues of [[vertebrate]]s including the [[Gut (zoology)|gut]], [[pancreas]] and [[suprachiasmatic nuclei]] of the [[hypothalamus]] in the [[brain]].<ref name="pmid6129023">{{cite journal | author = Fahrenkrug J, Emson PC | title = Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: functional aspects | journal = Br. Med. Bull. | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 265–70 | year = 1982 | month = September | pmid = 6129023 | doi = | url = http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6129023 | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid2872248">{{cite journal | author = Said SI | title = Vasoactive intestinal peptide | journal = J. Endocrinol. Invest. | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 191–200 | year = 1986 | month = April | pmid = 2872248 | doi = | url = | issn = }}</ref> VIP stimulates [[contractility]] in the heart, causes [[vasodilation]], increases [[glycogenolysis]], lowers arterial [[blood pressure]] and relaxes the smooth muscle of [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]], stomach and [[gall bladder]]. In humans, the vasoactive intestinal peptide is encoded by the ''VIP'' [[gene]].<ref name="pmid3025882">{{cite journal | author = Linder S, Barkhem T, Norberg A, Persson H, Schalling M, Hökfelt T, Magnusson G | title = Structure and expression of the gene encoding the vasoactive intestinal peptide precursor | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 605–9 | year = 1987 | month = January | pmid = 3025882 | pmc = 304259 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.84.2.605 }}</ref>
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  ⚫
VIP has a [[half-life]] (t<sub>½</sub>) in the blood of about two minutes.
   
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VIP has a [[half-life]] (T<sup>1/2</sup>) in the blood of about two minutes.
  
   
 
==Function==
  
==Function==
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VIP has an effect on several different parts of the body:
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VIP has an effect on several tissues:
   
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* With respect to the [[digestive system]], VIP seems to induce [[smooth muscle]] relaxation ([[lower esophageal sphincter]], [[stomach]], [[gallbladder]]), stimulate secretion of water into [[pancreatic juice]] and [[bile]], and cause inhibition of [[gastric acid]] secretion and absorption from the intestinal lumen.<ref name="colorado"/> Its role in the [[intestine]] is to greatly stimulate secretion of water and [[electrolytes]],<ref name="urlvasoactive intestinal polypeptide - General Practice Notebook">{{cite web | url = http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=1892679719 | title = Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | format = | work = | publisher = [[GPnotebook|General Practice Notebook]] | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref> as well as dilating intestinal [[smooth muscle]], dilating peripheral blood vessels, stimulating pancreatic [[bicarbonate]] secretion, and inhibiting [[gastrin]]-stimulated [[gastric acid]] secretion. These effects work together to increase motility.<ref name="urlwww.anatomyatlases.org">{{cite web | url = http://www.anatomyatlases.org/MicroscopicAnatomy/Section06/Plate06111.shtml | title = Plate 6.111 Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP) | author = Bergman RA, Afifi AK, Heidger PM | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | format = | work = Atlas of Microscopic Anatomy: Section 6 - Nervous Tissue | publisher = www.anatomyatlases.org | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref>
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* With respect to the [[digestive system]], VIP seems to induce [[smooth muscle]] relaxation ([[lower esophageal sphincter]], [[stomach]], [[gallbladder]]), stimulate secretion of water into [[pancreatic juice]] and [[bile]], and cause inhibition of [[gastric acid]] secretion and absorption from the intestinal lumen.<ref name="colorado"/> Its role in the [[intestine]] is to greatly stimulate secretion of water and [[electrolytes]],<ref name="urlvasoactive intestinal polypeptide - General Practice Notebook">{{cite web | url = http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=1892679719 | title = Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | format = | work = | publisher = [[GPnotebook|General Practice Notebook]] | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref> as well as stimulating contraction of enteric [[smooth muscle]], dilating peripheral blood vessels, stimulating pancreatic [[bicarbonate]] secretion, and inhibiting [[gastrin]]-stimulated [[gastric acid]] secretion. These effects work together to increase motility.<ref name="urlwww.anatomyatlases.org">{{cite web | url = http://www.anatomyatlases.org/MicroscopicAnatomy/Section06/Plate06111.shtml | title = Plate 6.111 Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP) | author = Bergman RA, Afifi AK, Heidger PM | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | work = Atlas of Microscopic Anatomy: Section 6 - Nervous Tissue | publisher = www.anatomyatlases.org | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref>
   
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* It also has the function of stimulating pepsinogen secretion by chief cells.<ref name="pmid6195927">{{cite journal | author = Sanders MJ, Amirian DA, Ayalon A, Soll AH | title = Regulation of pepsinogen release from canine chief cells in primary monolayer culture | journal = Am. J. Physiol. | volume = 245 | issue = 5 Pt 1 | pages = G641–6 | year = 1983 | month = November | pmid = 6195927 | doi = | url = http://ajpgi.physiology.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=reprint&pmid=6195927 | issn = }}</ref>
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* It also has the function of stimulating [[pepsinogen]] secretion by [[Gastric chief cell|chief cells]].<ref name="pmid6195927">{{cite journal | author = Sanders MJ, Amirian DA, Ayalon A, Soll AH | title = Regulation of pepsinogen release from canine chief cells in primary monolayer culture | journal = Am. J. Physiol. | volume = 245 | issue = 5 Pt 1 | pages = G641–6 | year = 1983 | month = November | pmid = 6195927 | doi = | url = http://ajpgi.physiology.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=reprint&pmid=6195927 | issn = }}</ref>
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* It is also found in the [[brain]] and some [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] nerves. One region of the brain includes a specific area of the [[suprachiasmatic nuclei]] (SCN), the location of the 'master [[circadian]] pacemaker'. The SCN coordinates daily timekeeping in the body and VIP plays a key role in communication between individual [[brain cells]] within this region. Further, VIP is also involved in synchronising the timing of SCN function with the environmental light-dark cycle. Combined, these roles in the SCN make VIP a crucial component of the mammalian [[circadian]] timekeeping machinery.
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* VIP helps to regulate [[prolactin]] secretion;<ref name="pmid15935152">{{cite journal | author = Kulick RS, Chaiseha Y, Kang SW, Rozenboim I, El Halawani ME | title = The relative importance of vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine as physiological regulators of prolactin in the domestic turkey | journal = Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. | volume = 142 | issue = 3 | pages = 267–73 | year = 2005 | month = July | pmid = 15935152 | doi = 10.1016/j.ygcen.2004.12.024 | url = }}</ref> it stimulates prolactin release in the [[domestic turkey]].
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* It is also found in the [[heart]] and has significant effects on the [[cardiovascular system]]. It causes coronary [[vasodilation]]<ref name="colorado">{{cite web | url = http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/gi/vip.html | title = Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide | author = Bowen R | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = 1999-01-24 | work = Pathophysiology of the Endocrine System: Gastrointestinal Hormones | publisher = Colorado State University | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref> as well as having a positive [[inotropic]] and [[chronotropic]] effect. Research is being performed to see if it may have a beneficial role in the treatment of [[heart failure]].
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*VIP provokes [[vaginal lubrication]] in normal women, doubling the total volume of lubrication produced in one study.<ref>Ottesen B, Pedersen B, Nielsen J, Dalgaard D, Wagner G, Fahrenkrug J. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3432128 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) provokes vaginal lubrication in normal women] ''[[Peptides (journal)|Peptides]]''. 1987 Sep-Oct;8(5):797-800. PMID: 3432128</ref>
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*The [[growth-hormone-releasing hormone]] (GH-RH) is a member of the VIP family and stimulates [[Growth Hormone]] secretion in the anterior pituitary gland.
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==Biosynthesis==
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==Secretion==
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It is produced in many areas of the [[human body]] including the [[gut]], [[pancreas]] and [[suprachiasmatic nuclei]] of the [[hypothalamus]] in the [[brain]].<ref name="pmid6129023">{{cite journal | author = Fahrenkrug J, Emson PC | title = Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: functional aspects | journal = Br. Med. Bull. | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 265–70 | year = 1982 | month = September | pmid = 6129023 | doi = | url = http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6129023 | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid2872248">{{cite journal | author = Said SI | title = Vasoactive intestinal peptide | journal = J. Endocrinol. Invest. | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 191–200 | year = 1986 | month = April | pmid = 2872248 | doi = | url = | issn = }}</ref> In humans, the vasoactive intestinal peptide is encoded by the ''VIP'' [[gene]].<ref name="pmid3025882">{{cite journal | author = Linder S, Barkhem T, Norberg A, Persson H, Schalling M, Hökfelt T, Magnusson G | title = Structure and expression of the gene encoding the vasoactive intestinal peptide precursor | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 605–9 | year = 1987 | month = January | pmid = 3025882 | pmc = 304259 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.84.2.605| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3025882 }}</ref>
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  +
VIP has a [[half-life]] (T<sup>1/2</sup>) in the blood of about two minutes.
   
 
* It is also found in the [[brain]] and some [[autonomic]] nerves. One region of the brain includes a specific area of the [[suprachiasmatic nuclei]] (SCN), the location of the 'master [[circadian]] pacemaker'. The SCN coordinates daily timekeeping in the body and VIP plays a key role in communication between individual [[brain cells]] within this region. Further, VIP is also involved in synchronising the timing of SCN function with the environmental light-dark cycle. Combined, these roles in the SCN make VIP a crucial component of the mammalian [[circadian]] timekeeping machinery.
  
* It is also found in the [[brain]] and some [[autonomic]] nerves. One region of the brain includes a specific area of the [[suprachiasmatic nuclei]] (SCN), the location of the 'master [[circadian]] pacemaker'. The SCN coordinates daily timekeeping in the body and VIP plays a key role in communication between individual [[brain cells]] within this region. Further, VIP is also involved in synchronising the timing of SCN function with the environmental light-dark cycle. Combined, these roles in the SCN make VIP a crucial component of the mammalian [[circadian]] timekeeping machinery.
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* It is also found in the [[heart]] and has significant effects on the [[cardiovascular system]]. It causes coronary [[vasodilation]]<ref name="colorado">{{cite web | url = http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/gi/vip.html | title = Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide | author = Bowen R | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = 1999-01-24 | format = | work = Pathophysiology of the Endocrine System: Gastrointestinal Hormones | publisher = Colorado State University | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref> as well as having a positive [[inotropic]] and [[chronotropic]] effect. Research is being performed to see if it may have a beneficial role in the treatment of [[heart failure]].
  
* It is also found in the [[heart]] and has significant effects on the [[cardiovascular system]]. It causes coronary [[vasodilation]]<ref name="colorado">{{cite web | url = http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/gi/vip.html | title = Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide | author = Bowen R | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = 1999-01-24 | format = | work = Pathophysiology of the Endocrine System: Gastrointestinal Hormones | publisher = Colorado State University | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2009-02-06}}</ref> as well as having a positive [[inotropic]] and [[chronotropic]] effect. Research is being performed to see if it may have a beneficial role in the treatment of [[heart failure]].
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==Metabolism==
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==Physiology==
   
 
==Pathology==
  
==Pathology==
 
VIP is overproduced in [[VIPoma]].<ref name="colorado" />
  
VIP is overproduced in [[VIPoma]].<ref name="colorado" />
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Can be associated with [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1|Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1]] (Pituitary, parathyroid and pancreatic tumors).
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Symptoms are typically:
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* Profuse non-bloody/non-mucoid diarrhea (3L+) causing dehydration and the associated electrolyte disturbances such as [[hypokalemia]] and [[metabolic acidosis]].
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* Lethargy and exhaustion may ensue
   
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== See also ==
  
   
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==Treatment for deficiency==
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===Chemistry===
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===Chemical synthesis===
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===Isolation and purification===
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===Therapeutic use===
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===Administration and dosage===
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===Pharmakinetics===
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===Pharmacology===
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===Analogues and derivatives===
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===Adverse effects===
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===Toxicity===
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  ⚫
== See also ==
 
* [[Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor]]
  
* [[Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor]]
   
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}}
  
}}
 
{{refend}}
  
{{refend}}
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==Further reading==
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===Secretion===
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*Achord, J. L., & Achord, J. L. (1986). Secretin, cholecystokinin, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in pancreatic cholera. Annals of Internal Medicine, 105(4), 632.
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*Agoston, D. V., Conlon, J. M., Whittaker, V. P., Agoston, D. V., Conlon, J. M., & Whittaker, V. P. (1988). Selective depletion of the acetylcholine and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide of the guinea-pig myenteric plexus by differential mobilization of distinct transmitter pools. Experimental Brain Research, 72(3), 535-542.
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*Anderson, F. L., Kralios, A. C., Cluff, N., Hanson, G. R., Anderson, F. L., Kralios, A. C., et al. (1994). Vagal-induced tachycardia: release of vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide HI. American Journal of Physiology, 267(5 Pt 2), H2019-2024.
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*Andersson, P. O., Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Jarhult, J., Andersson, P. O., Bloom, S. R., et al. (1982). Effects of stimulation of the chorda tympani in bursts on submaxillary responses in the cat. Journal of Physiology, 322, 469-483.
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*Andersson, P. O., Sjogren, C., Uvnas, B., Uvnas-Moberg, K., Andersson, P. O., Sjogren, C., et al. (1990). Urinary bladder and urethral responses to pelvic and hypogastric nerve stimulation and their relation to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the anaesthetized dog. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 138(3), 409-416.
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*Bani-Sacchi, T., Bartolini, G., Biliotti, G., Bani-Sacchi, T., Bartolini, G., & Biliotti, G. (1986). A multihormonal tumor of the pancreas producing neurotensin associated with the WDHA syndrome. Histology, histochemistry and origin. Histology & Histopathology, 1(2), 187-195.
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*Baranowska, B., & Baranowska, B. (1991). A marked decrease of vasoactive intestinal peptide release in obese patients. Metabolism: Clinical & Experimental, 40(4), 344-346.
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*Barraclough, M. A., Bloom, S. R., Barraclough, M. A., & Bloom, S. R. (1979). Vipoma of the pancreas: observations on the diarhrhea and circulatory disturbances. Archives of Internal Medicine, 139(4), 467-471.
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*Barragry, T. P., Wick, M. R., Delaney, J. P., Barragry, T. P., Wick, M. R., & Delaney, J. P. (1985). Pancreatic islet cell carcinoma with gastrin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide production. Archives of Surgery, 120(10), 1178-1181.
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*Basson, M. D., Fielding, L. P., Bilchik, A. J., Zucker, K. A., Ballantyne, G. H., Sussman, J., et al. (1989). Does vasoactive intestinal polypeptide mediate the pathophysiology of bowel obstruction? American Journal of Surgery, 157(1), 109-115.
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*Bateson, P. G., Buchanan, K. D., Stewart, D. M., Parks, T. G., Bateson, P. G., Buchanan, K. D., et al. (1980). The release of vasoactive intestinal peptide during altered mid-gut blood flow. British Journal of Surgery, 67(2), 131-134.
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*Bauer, F. E., Schulz, E., Janisch, H. D., von Kleist, D., Hampel, K. E., Bauer, F. E., et al. (1985). [Absence of effect of secretin and cholecystokinin on plasma concentrations of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and pancreatic glucagon]. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 97(14), 603-605.
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*Beck, B., Villaume, C., Chayvialle, J. A., Gariot, P., Ulmer, M., Desalme, A., et al. (1984). Influence of caloric intake on gastric inhibitory polypeptide, VIP and gastrin release in man. Peptides, 5(2), 403-406.
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*Belai, A., Ralevic, V., Burnstock, G., Belai, A., Ralevic, V., & Burnstock, G. (1987). VIP release from enteric nerves is independent of extracellular calcium. Regulatory Peptides, 19(1-2), 79-89.
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*Bernard, P., Lebras, J., Pradel, J., Viguier, A. C., Curet, P., Grellet, J., et al. (1980). [Angiographic exploration of a case of a case of adrenal APUD adenoma secreting three hormones: VIP, catecholamines, and somatostatin (author's transl)]. Journal de Radiologie, 61(2), 121-124.
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*Besson, J., Rostene, W., Lhiaubet, A. M., Poussin, B., Rosselin, G., Besson, J., et al. (1983). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from rat jejuno-ileum in vitro. Effect of various depolarizing agents. Experientia, 39(7), 732-733.
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*Besson, J., Rotsztejn, W., Poussin, B., Lhiaubet, A. M., Rosselin, G., Besson, J., et al. (1982). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from rat brain slices by various depolarizing agents. Neuroscience Letters, 28(3), 281-285.
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*Bitar, K. N., Said, S. I., Weir, G. C., Saffouri, B., Makhlouf, G. M., Bitar, K. N., et al. (1980). Neural release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from the gut. Gastroenterology, 79(6), 1288-1294.
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*Bjorck, S., Fahrenkrug, J., Jivegard, L., Svanvik, J., Bjorck, S., Fahrenkrug, J., et al. (1986). Release of immunoreactive vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) from the gallbladder in response to vagal stimulation. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 128(4), 639-642.
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*Blair, A. W., Ahmed, S., Blair, A. W., & Ahmed, S. (1981). Presacral vipoma in a 16-month-old child. Acta Paediatrica Belgica, 34(2), 89-91.
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*Blank, M. A., Fuortes, M., Nyren, O., Jaffe, B. M., Blank, M. A., Fuortes, M., et al. (1991). Effect of endothelin-1 and vasoactive intestinal contractor on blood flow and output of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the feline colon. Life Sciences, 48(20), 1937-1944.
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*Blank, M. A., Kimura, K., Jaffe, B. M., Blank, M. A., Kimura, K., & Jaffe, B. M. (1988). Regulatory mechanisms in the luminal and portal release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide during vagal nerve stimulation in the cat. Regulatory Peptides, 23(1), 15-26.
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*Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Bloom, S. R., & Edwards, A. V. (1979). The relationship between release of vasoactive intestinal peptide in the salivary gland of the cat in response to parasympathetic stimulation and the atropine resistant vasodilatation [proceedings]. Journal of Physiology, 295, 35P-36P.
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*Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Bloom, S. R., & Edwards, A. V. (1980). Effects of autonomic stimulation on the release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from the gastrointestinal tract in the calf. Journal of Physiology, 299, 437-452.
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*Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Bloom, S. R., & Edwards, A. V. (1980). Vasoactive intestinal peptide in relation to atropine resistant vasodilatation in the submaxillary gland of the cat. Journal of Physiology, 300, 41-53.
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*Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Mitchell, S. J., Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., & Mitchell, S. J. (1979). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from the gastrointestinal tract in response to autonomic stimulation in the calf [proceedings]. Journal of Physiology, 289, 47P.
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*Bloom, S. R., Lee, Y. C., Lacroute, J. M., Abbass, A., Sondag, D., Baumann, R., et al. (1983). Two patients with pancreatic apudomas secreting neurotensin and VIP. Gut, 24(5), 448-452.
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*Bloom, S. R., Yiangou, Y., Polak, J. M., Bloom, S. R., Yiangou, Y., & Polak, J. M. (1988). Vasoactive intestinal peptide secreting tumors. Pathophysiological and clinical correlations. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 527, 518-527.
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*Booth, I. W., Fenton, T. R., Milla, P. J., Harries, J. T., Booth, I. W., Fenton, T. R., et al. (1983). A pathophysiological study of the intestinal manifestations of a vasoactive intestinal peptide, calcitonin, and catecholamine-secreting tumour. Gut, 24(10), 954-959.
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*Brunet, J., Saudin, F., Cochat, P., Chayvialle, J. A., Descos, B., Treuner, J., et al. (1988). [Metastatic neuroblastoma with secondary hypersecretion of vasoactive intestinal peptide]. Pediatrie, 43(5), 415-417.
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*Brunt, L. M., Mazoujian, G., O'Dorisio, T. M., Wells, S. A., Jr., Brunt, L. M., Mazoujian, G., et al. (1994). Stimulation of vasoactive intestinal peptide and neurotensin secretion by pentagastrin in a patient with VIPoma syndrome. Surgery, 115(3), 362-369.
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*Burns, G., Baker, D. J., Brown, B. L., Dobson, P. R., Burns, G., Baker, D. J., et al. (1987). Effect of opioid peptides and potassium on the release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and thyrotropin releasing hormone from perifused rat hypothalami. Life Sciences, 40(10), 951-957.
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*Burns, G., Brown, B. L., Dobson, P. R., Burns, G., Brown, B. L., & Dobson, P. R. (1988). Diurnal variation in the effect of potassium depolarization on vasoactive intestinal polypeptide release from rat hypothalamus: a possible role for adrenaline. Journal of Endocrinology, 116(3), 335-341.
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*Calvo, J. J., De Carvalho, L. F., Gonzalez, R., Burnet, P. W., Ghatei, M. A., Bloom, S. R., et al. (1990). Effect of ACTH on VIP and galanin release from the pituitary. Endocrinology, 126(2), 1283-1287.
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*Chaen, T., Watanabe, N., Mogi, G., Mori, K., Takeyama, M., Chaen, T., et al. (1993). Substance P and vasoactive intestinal peptide in nasal secretions and plasma from patients with nasal allergy. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 102(1 Pt 1), 16-21.
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*Chaiseha, Y., Youngren, O. M., el Halawani, M. E., Chaiseha, Y., Youngren, O. M., & el Halawani, M. E. (1997). Dopamine receptors influence vasoactive intestinal peptide release from turkey hypothalamic explants. Neuroendocrinology, 65(6), 423-429.
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*Chaiseha, Y., Youngren, O. M., El Halawani, M. E., Chaiseha, Y., Youngren, O. M., & El Halawani, M. E. (1998). Vasoactive intestinal peptide secretion by turkey hypothalamic explants. Biology of Reproduction, 59(3), 670-675.
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*Chayvialle, J. A., Miyata, M., Rayford, P. L., Thompson, J. C., Chayvialle, J. A., Miyata, M., et al. (1980). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide by distention of the proximal stomach in dogs. Gut, 21(9), 745-749.
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*Cheung, C. Y., & Cheung, C. Y. (1988). Ontogeny of adrenal VIP content and release from adrenocortical cells in the ovine fetus. Peptides, 9(1), 107-111.
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*Chijiiwa, Y., Misawa, T., Ibayashi, H., Chijiiwa, Y., Misawa, T., & Ibayashi, H. (1986). Evidence of local mechanism involvement in vasoactive intestinal polypeptide release from canine small intestine. Gastroenterology, 90(6), 1877-1881.
  +
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*Schmidt, P., Rasmussen, T. N., Holst, J. J., Schmidt, P., Rasmussen, T. N., & Holst, J. J. (1993). Release of immunoreactive somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and galanin during propulsive complexes in isolated pig ileum. Peptides, 14(2), 215-220.
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*Sheu, H. W., Chou, S. Y., Yang, K. C., Kao, C. R., Yang, T. L., Shih, C. C., et al. (1989). Pancreatic vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-secreting tumor: report of a case. Taiwan i Hsueh Hui Tsa Chih - Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 88(9), 931-935.
  +
*Shimatsu, A., Kato, Y., Matsushita, N., Katakami, H., Ohta, H., Yanaihara, N., et al. (1983). Effect of prostaglandin E1 on vasoactive intestinal polypeptide release from the hypothalamus and on prolactin secretion from the pituitary in rats. Endocrinology, 113(6), 2059-2064.
  +
*Shimatsu, A., Kato, Y., Matsushita, N., Katakami, H., Ohta, H., Yanaihara, N., et al. (1983). Serotonin stimulates vasoactive intestinal polypeptide release from rat hypothalamus in vitro. Brain Research, 264(1), 148-151.
  +
*Shimatsu, A., Kato, Y., Matsushita, N., Ohta, H., Kabayama, Y., Yanaihara, N., et al. (1984). Prostaglandin D2 stimulates vasoactive intestinal polypeptide release into rat hypophysial portal blood. Peptides, 5(2), 395-398.
  +
*Shulman, D. I., McClenathan, D. T., Harmel, R. P., Qualman, S. J., O'Dorisio, T. M., Shulman, D. I., et al. (1996). Ganglioneuromatosis involving the small intestine and pancreas of a child and causing hypersecretion of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition, 22(2), 212-218.
  +
*Silva, P., Stoff, J. S., Solomon, R. J., Lear, S., Kniaz, D., Greger, R., et al. (1987). Atrial natriuretic peptide stimulates salt secretion by shark rectal gland by releasing VIP. American Journal of Physiology, 252(1 Pt 2), F99-103.
  +
*Sjoqvist, A., Fahrenkrug, J., Jodal, M., Lundgren, O., Sjoqvist, A., Fahrenkrug, J., et al. (1983). Effect of apamin on release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) from the cat intestines. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 119(1), 69-76.
  +
*Sjoqvist, A., Fahrenkrug, J., Jodal, M., Lundgren, O., Sjoqvist, A., Fahrenkrug, J., et al. (1988). The effect of splanchnic nerve stimulation and neuropeptide Y on cholera secretion and release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the feline small intestine. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 133(3), 289-295.
  +
*Sjoqvist, A., Fahrenkrug, J., Sjoqvist, A., & Fahrenkrug, J. (1986). Sympathetic nerve activation decreases the release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide from the feline intestine. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 127(4), 419-423.
  +
*Sjoqvist, A., Fahrenkrug, J., Sjoqvist, A., & Fahrenkrug, J. (1987). Release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide anally of a local distension of the feline small intestine. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 130(3), 433-438.
  +
*Smith, S. L., Branton, S. A., Avino, A. J., Martin, J. K., Klingler, P. J., Thompson, G. B., et al. (1998). Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide secreting islet cell tumors: a 15-year experience and review of the literature. Surgery, 124(6), 1050-1055.
  +
*Takano, M., Takano, Y., Yaksh, T. L., Takano, M., Takano, Y., & Yaksh, T. L. (1993). Release of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), substance P (SP), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) from rat spinal cord: modulation by alpha 2 agonists. Peptides, 14(2), 371-378.
  +
*Taylor, A. R., Chulajata, D., Jones, D. H., Whitwam, J. G., Taylor, A. R., Chulajata, D., et al. (1977). Adrenal tumour secreting vasoactive intestinal peptide and noradrenaline. Anaesthesia, 32(10), 1012-1016.
  +
*Thomas, M. L., Lamb, G. H., Barraclough, M. A., Thomas, M. L., Lamb, G. H., & Barraclough, M. A. (1976). Angiographic demonstration of a pancreatic "vipoma" in the WDHA syndrome. AJR American Journal of Roentgenology, 127(6), 1037-1039.
  +
*Thomason, J. W., Martin, R. S., Fincher, M. E., Thomason, J. W., Martin, R. S., & Fincher, M. E. (2000). Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy: the definitive technique for characterizing vasoactive intestinal peptide-secreting tumors. Clinical Nuclear Medicine, 25(9), 661-664.
  +
*Tiedemann, K., Pritchard, J., Long, R., Bloom, S. R., Tiedemann, K., Pritchard, J., et al. (1981). Intractable diarrhoea in a patient with vasoactive intestinal peptide-secreting neuroblastoma. Attempted control by somatostatin. European Journal of Pediatrics, 137(2), 217-219.
  +
*Tillotson, L. G., Lodestro, C., Hocker, M., Wiedenmann, B., Newcomer, C. E., Reid, L. M., et al. (2001). Isolation, maintenance, and characterization of human pancreatic islet tumor cells expressing vasoactive intestinal peptide. Pancreas, 22(1), 91-98.
  +
*Tolia, V., Dubois, R. S., Philippart, A. I., Kagalwalla, A., Watts, F. B., Jr., Chang, C. H., et al. (1983). A case of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide secreting ganglioneuroma complicated by parasitic infestations. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 78(12), 799-801.
  +
*Tominaga, K., Inouye, S. I., Okamura, H., Tominaga, K., Inouye, S. I., & Okamura, H. (1994). Organotypic slice culture of the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: sustenance of cellular architecture and circadian rhythm. Neuroscience, 59(4), 1025-1042.
  +
*Tomita, S., & Tomita, S. (1982). [Studies on VIP release and its mechanism in normal subjects and patients with various diseases (author's transl)]. Nippon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi - Japanese Journal of Gastroenterology, 79(3), 798-807.
  +
*Uvnas-Moberg, K., Goiny, M., Blomquist, L. E., Elwin, C. E., Uvnas-Moberg, K., Goiny, M., et al. (1984). Release of VIP-like immunoreactivity in response to dopamine agonists, insulin hypoglycemia and feeding in conscious dogs. Peptides, 5(2), 399-402.
  +
*Voorhess, M. L., & Voorhess, M. L. (1980). Functioning tumors. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 134(1), 14-15.
  +
*Wallin, C., Grupcev, G., Emas, S., Theodorsson, E., Hellstrom, P. M., Wallin, C., et al. (1995). Release of somatostatin, neurotensin and vasoactive intestinal peptide upon inhibition of gastric acid secretion by duodenal acid and hyperosmolal solutions in the conscious rat. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 154(2), 193-203.
  +
*Wang, J. Y., Yaksh, T. L., Go, V. L., Wang, J. Y., Yaksh, T. L., & Go, V. L. (1985). Studies on the in vivo release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) from the cerebral cortex: effects of cortical, brainstem and somatic stimuli. Brain Research, 326(2), 317-334.
  +
*Watanobe, H., Sasaki, S., Watanobe, H., & Sasaki, S. (1995). Effect of thyroid status on the prolactin-releasing action of vasoactive intestinal peptide in humans: comparison with the action of thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Neuroendocrinology, 61(2), 207-212.
  +
*Watson, K. J., Shulkes, A., Smallwood, R. A., Douglas, M. C., Hurley, R., Kalnins, R., et al. (1985). Watery diarrhea-hypokalemia-achlorhydria syndrome and carcinoma of the esophagus. Gastroenterology, 88(3), 798-803.
  +
*Wesley, J. R., Vinik, A. I., O'Dorisio, T. M., Glaser, B., Fink, A., Wesley, J. R., et al. (1982). A new syndrome of symptomatic cutaneous mastocytoma producing vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Gastroenterology, 82(5 Pt 1), 963-967.
  +
*Weyman, C., Dolson, L., Kedar, A., Weyman, C., Dolson, L., & Kedar, A. (1993). Secretion of vasointestinal peptide by a primary liver tumor with rhabdoid features. Journal of Surgical Oncology, 54(4), 267-270.
  +
Wolfe, M. M., Misbin, R. I., Gardner, D. F., McGuigan, J. E., Wolfe, M. M., Misbin, R. I., et al. (1983). Enteric release of vasoactive intestinal peptide after a peptone meal in the dog. Regulatory Peptides, 5(2), 103-109.
  +
*Woltering, E. A., O'Dorisio, T. M., Mekhjian, H. S., Ellison, E. C., Dyben, T., Howe, B. A., et al. (1986). The response of a non-functional VIP- and somatostatin-containing tumour to tolbutamide in vitro. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology - Supplement, 119, 129-135.
  +
*Wu, H. G., Jiang, B., Zhou, E. H., Shi, Z., Shi, D. R., Cui, Y. H., et al. (2008). Regulatory mechanism of electroacupuncture in irritable bowel syndrome: preventing MC activation and decreasing SP VIP secretion. Digestive Diseases & Sciences, 53(6), 1644-1651.
  +
*Yamaguchi, K., Abe, K., Yamaguchi, K., & Abe, K. (1979). [Clinical aspects of gut hormone-producing tumors (author's transl)]. Horumon to Rinsho - Clinical Endocrinology, 27(12), 1363-1378.
  +
Yang, Z. D., Ning, M. F., Yang, H. B., Yang, Z. D., Ning, M. F., & Yang, H. B. [Watery diarrhea-hypokalemia-achlorhydria syndrome due to retroperitoneal ganglioneuroma: a case report]. Chung-Hua Wai Ko Tsa Chih [Chinese Journal of Surgery], 25(9), 514-516.
  +
*Yasunami, Y., Funakoshi, A., Ryu, S., Shinozaki, H., Jimi, A., Miyazaki, K., et al. (1994). In vitro release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and pancreatic polypeptide from human VIPoma cells and its inhibition by somatostatin analogue (SMS 201-995). Surgery, 115(6), 713-717.
  +
*Yeh, C. N., Chen, M. F., Chen, T. C., Yeh, C. N., Chen, M. F., & Chen, T. C. (2001). Surgical treatment of pancreatic vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-secreting tumor: a case report. Hepato-Gastroenterology, 48(38), 421-423.
  +
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Latest revision as of 08:40, 13 July 2013

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Vasoactive intestinal peptide
Symbol(s): VIP
Locus: 6 q24 -q27
EC number [1]
EntrezGene 7432
OMIM 192320
RefSeq NM_003381
UniProt P01282

Vasoactive intestinal peptide also known as the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide or VIP is a peptide hormone containing 28 amino acid residues. VIP is neuropeptide which belongs to a glucagon/secretin superfamily, the ligand of class II G protein-coupled receptors.[1] VIP is produced in many tissues of vertebrates including the gut, pancreas and suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus in the brain.[2][3] VIP stimulates contractility in the heart, causes vasodilation, increases glycogenolysis, lowers arterial blood pressure and relaxes the smooth muscle of trachea, stomach and gall bladder. In humans, the vasoactive intestinal peptide is encoded by the VIP gene.[4]

VIP has a half-life (t½) in the blood of about two minutes.


Function

VIP has an effect on several tissues:

  • It also has the function of stimulating pepsinogen secretion by chief cells.[8]
  • It is also found in the brain and some autonomic nerves. One region of the brain includes a specific area of the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the location of the 'master circadian pacemaker'. The SCN coordinates daily timekeeping in the body and VIP plays a key role in communication between individual brain cells within this region. Further, VIP is also involved in synchronising the timing of SCN function with the environmental light-dark cycle. Combined, these roles in the SCN make VIP a crucial component of the mammalian circadian timekeeping machinery.
  • VIP helps to regulate prolactin secretion;[9] it stimulates prolactin release in the domestic turkey.
  • VIP provokes vaginal lubrication in normal women, doubling the total volume of lubrication produced in one study.[10]
  • The growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GH-RH) is a member of the VIP family and stimulates Growth Hormone secretion in the anterior pituitary gland.


Biosynthesis

Secretion

It is produced in many areas of the human body including the gut, pancreas and suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus in the brain.[2][3] In humans, the vasoactive intestinal peptide is encoded by the VIP gene.[4]

VIP has a half-life (T1/2) in the blood of about two minutes.

  • It is also found in the brain and some autonomic nerves. One region of the brain includes a specific area of the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the location of the 'master circadian pacemaker'. The SCN coordinates daily timekeeping in the body and VIP plays a key role in communication between individual brain cells within this region. Further, VIP is also involved in synchronising the timing of SCN function with the environmental light-dark cycle. Combined, these roles in the SCN make VIP a crucial component of the mammalian circadian timekeeping machinery.

Metabolism

Physiology

Pathology

VIP is overproduced in VIPoma.[5] Can be associated with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 (Pituitary, parathyroid and pancreatic tumors). Symptoms are typically:

  • Profuse non-bloody/non-mucoid diarrhea (3L+) causing dehydration and the associated electrolyte disturbances such as hypokalemia and metabolic acidosis.
  • Lethargy and exhaustion may ensue


Treatment for deficiency

Chemistry

Chemical synthesis

Isolation and purification

Therapeutic use

Administration and dosage

Pharmakinetics

Pharmacology

Analogues and derivatives

Adverse effects

Toxicity

See also

References

  1. ↑ Template:Http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21439408
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Fahrenkrug J, Emson PC (September 1982). Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: functional aspects. Br. Med. Bull. 38 (3): 265–70.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Said SI (April 1986). Vasoactive intestinal peptide. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 9 (2): 191–200.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Linder S, Barkhem T, Norberg A, Persson H, Schalling M, Hökfelt T, Magnusson G (January 1987). Structure and expression of the gene encoding the vasoactive intestinal peptide precursor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84 (2): 605–9. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "pmid3025882" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Bowen R. Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide. Pathophysiology of the Endocrine System: Gastrointestinal Hormones. Colorado State University. URL accessed on 2009-02-06. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "colorado" defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. General Practice Notebook. URL accessed on 2009-02-06.
  7. ↑ Bergman RA, Afifi AK, Heidger PM. Plate 6.111 Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP). Atlas of Microscopic Anatomy: Section 6 - Nervous Tissue. www.anatomyatlases.org. URL accessed on 2009-02-06.
  8. ↑ Sanders MJ, Amirian DA, Ayalon A, Soll AH (November 1983). Regulation of pepsinogen release from canine chief cells in primary monolayer culture. Am. J. Physiol. 245 (5 Pt 1): G641–6.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Kulick RS, Chaiseha Y, Kang SW, Rozenboim I, El Halawani ME (July 2005). The relative importance of vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide histidine isoleucine as physiological regulators of prolactin in the domestic turkey. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 142 (3): 267–73.
  10. ↑ Ottesen B, Pedersen B, Nielsen J, Dalgaard D, Wagner G, Fahrenkrug J. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) provokes vaginal lubrication in normal women Peptides. 1987 Sep-Oct;8(5):797-800. PMID: 3432128

Further reading


  • Fahrenkrug J (2002). Gut/brain peptides in the genital tract: VIP and PACAP. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. Suppl. 234: 35–9.
  • Delgado M, Pozo D, Ganea D (2004). The significance of vasoactive intestinal peptide in immunomodulation. Pharmacol. Rev. 56 (2): 249–90.
  • Conconi MT, Spinazzi R, Nussdorfer GG (2006). Endogenous ligands of PACAP/VIP receptors in the autocrine-paracrine regulation of the adrenal gland. Int. Rev. Cytol. 249: 1–51.
  • Hill JM (2007). Vasoactive intestinal peptide in neurodevelopmental disorders: therapeutic potential. Curr. Pharm. Des. 13 (11): 1079–89.
  • Gonzalez-Rey E, Varela N, Chorny A, Delgado M (2007). Therapeutical approaches of vasoactive intestinal peptide as a pleiotropic immunomodulator. Curr. Pharm. Des. 13 (11): 1113–39.
  • (1975) [Quaternary structure of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthetase]. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 222 (4): 997–1000.
  • Kitamura K, Kangawa K, Kawamoto M, et al. (1992). Isolation and characterization of peptides which act on rat platelets, from a pheochromocytoma. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 185 (1): 134–41.
  • Glowa JR, Panlilio LV, Brenneman DE, et al. (1992). Learning impairment following intracerebral administration of the HIV envelope protein gp120 or a VIP antagonist. Brain Res. 570 (1-2): 49–53.
  • Theriault Y, Boulanger Y, St-Pierre S (1991). Structural determination of the vasoactive intestinal peptide by two-dimensional H-NMR spectroscopy. Biopolymers 31 (4): 459–64.
  • Gozes I, Giladi E, Shani Y (1987). Vasoactive intestinal peptide gene: putative mechanism of information storage at the RNA level. J. Neurochem. 48 (4): 1136–41.
  • Yamagami T, Ohsawa K, Nishizawa M, et al. (1988). Complete nucleotide sequence of human vasoactive intestinal peptide/PHM-27 gene and its inducible promoter. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 527: 87–102.
  • Bodner M, Fridkin M, Gozes I (1985). Coding sequences for vasoactive intestinal peptide and PHM-27 peptide are located on two adjacent exons in the human genome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82 (11): 3548–51.
  • DeLamarter JF, Buell GN, Kawashima E, et al. (1985). Vasoactive intestinal peptide: expression of the prohormone in bacterial cells. Peptides 6 Suppl 1: 95–102.
  • Linder S, Barkhem T, Norberg A, et al. (1987). Structure and expression of the gene encoding the vasoactive intestinal peptide precursor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84 (2): 605–9.
  • Gotoh E, Yamagami T, Yamamoto H, Okamoto H (1989). Chromosomal assignment of human VIP/PHM-27 gene to 6q26----q27 region by spot blot hybridization and in situ hybridization. Biochem. Int. 17 (3): 555–62.
  • Yiangou Y, Di Marzo V, Spokes RA, et al. (1987). Isolation, characterization, and pharmacological actions of peptide histidine valine 42, a novel prepro-vasoactive intestinal peptide-derived peptide. J. Biol. Chem. 262 (29): 14010–3.
  • Gozes I, Bodner M, Shani Y, Fridkin M (1986). Structure and expression of the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) gene in a human tumor. Peptides 7 Suppl 1: 1–6.
  • Tsukada T, Horovitch SJ, Montminy MR, et al. (1985). Structure of the human vasoactive intestinal polypeptide gene. DNA 4 (4): 293–300.
  • Heinz-Erian P, Dey RD, Flux M, Said SI (1985). Deficient vasoactive intestinal peptide innervation in the sweat glands of cystic fibrosis patients. Science 229 (4720): 1407–8.
  • Bloom SR, Christofides ND, Delamarter J, et al. (1984). Diarrhoea in vipoma patients associated with cosecretion of a second active peptide (peptide histidine isoleucine) explained by single coding gene. Lancet 2 (8360): 1163–5.




Further reading

Secretion

  • Achord, J. L., & Achord, J. L. (1986). Secretin, cholecystokinin, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in pancreatic cholera. Annals of Internal Medicine, 105(4), 632.
  • Agoston, D. V., Conlon, J. M., Whittaker, V. P., Agoston, D. V., Conlon, J. M., & Whittaker, V. P. (1988). Selective depletion of the acetylcholine and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide of the guinea-pig myenteric plexus by differential mobilization of distinct transmitter pools. Experimental Brain Research, 72(3), 535-542.
  • Anderson, F. L., Kralios, A. C., Cluff, N., Hanson, G. R., Anderson, F. L., Kralios, A. C., et al. (1994). Vagal-induced tachycardia: release of vasoactive intestinal peptide and peptide HI. American Journal of Physiology, 267(5 Pt 2), H2019-2024.
  • Andersson, P. O., Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Jarhult, J., Andersson, P. O., Bloom, S. R., et al. (1982). Effects of stimulation of the chorda tympani in bursts on submaxillary responses in the cat. Journal of Physiology, 322, 469-483.
  • Andersson, P. O., Sjogren, C., Uvnas, B., Uvnas-Moberg, K., Andersson, P. O., Sjogren, C., et al. (1990). Urinary bladder and urethral responses to pelvic and hypogastric nerve stimulation and their relation to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the anaesthetized dog. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 138(3), 409-416.
  • Bani-Sacchi, T., Bartolini, G., Biliotti, G., Bani-Sacchi, T., Bartolini, G., & Biliotti, G. (1986). A multihormonal tumor of the pancreas producing neurotensin associated with the WDHA syndrome. Histology, histochemistry and origin. Histology & Histopathology, 1(2), 187-195.
  • Baranowska, B., & Baranowska, B. (1991). A marked decrease of vasoactive intestinal peptide release in obese patients. Metabolism: Clinical & Experimental, 40(4), 344-346.
  • Barraclough, M. A., Bloom, S. R., Barraclough, M. A., & Bloom, S. R. (1979). Vipoma of the pancreas: observations on the diarhrhea and circulatory disturbances. Archives of Internal Medicine, 139(4), 467-471.
  • Barragry, T. P., Wick, M. R., Delaney, J. P., Barragry, T. P., Wick, M. R., & Delaney, J. P. (1985). Pancreatic islet cell carcinoma with gastrin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide production. Archives of Surgery, 120(10), 1178-1181.
  • Basson, M. D., Fielding, L. P., Bilchik, A. J., Zucker, K. A., Ballantyne, G. H., Sussman, J., et al. (1989). Does vasoactive intestinal polypeptide mediate the pathophysiology of bowel obstruction? American Journal of Surgery, 157(1), 109-115.
  • Bateson, P. G., Buchanan, K. D., Stewart, D. M., Parks, T. G., Bateson, P. G., Buchanan, K. D., et al. (1980). The release of vasoactive intestinal peptide during altered mid-gut blood flow. British Journal of Surgery, 67(2), 131-134.
  • Bauer, F. E., Schulz, E., Janisch, H. D., von Kleist, D., Hampel, K. E., Bauer, F. E., et al. (1985). [Absence of effect of secretin and cholecystokinin on plasma concentrations of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and pancreatic glucagon]. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 97(14), 603-605.
  • Beck, B., Villaume, C., Chayvialle, J. A., Gariot, P., Ulmer, M., Desalme, A., et al. (1984). Influence of caloric intake on gastric inhibitory polypeptide, VIP and gastrin release in man. Peptides, 5(2), 403-406.
  • Belai, A., Ralevic, V., Burnstock, G., Belai, A., Ralevic, V., & Burnstock, G. (1987). VIP release from enteric nerves is independent of extracellular calcium. Regulatory Peptides, 19(1-2), 79-89.
  • Bernard, P., Lebras, J., Pradel, J., Viguier, A. C., Curet, P., Grellet, J., et al. (1980). [Angiographic exploration of a case of a case of adrenal APUD adenoma secreting three hormones: VIP, catecholamines, and somatostatin (author's transl)]. Journal de Radiologie, 61(2), 121-124.
  • Besson, J., Rostene, W., Lhiaubet, A. M., Poussin, B., Rosselin, G., Besson, J., et al. (1983). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from rat jejuno-ileum in vitro. Effect of various depolarizing agents. Experientia, 39(7), 732-733.
  • Besson, J., Rotsztejn, W., Poussin, B., Lhiaubet, A. M., Rosselin, G., Besson, J., et al. (1982). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from rat brain slices by various depolarizing agents. Neuroscience Letters, 28(3), 281-285.
  • Bitar, K. N., Said, S. I., Weir, G. C., Saffouri, B., Makhlouf, G. M., Bitar, K. N., et al. (1980). Neural release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from the gut. Gastroenterology, 79(6), 1288-1294.
  • Bjorck, S., Fahrenkrug, J., Jivegard, L., Svanvik, J., Bjorck, S., Fahrenkrug, J., et al. (1986). Release of immunoreactive vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) from the gallbladder in response to vagal stimulation. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 128(4), 639-642.
  • Blair, A. W., Ahmed, S., Blair, A. W., & Ahmed, S. (1981). Presacral vipoma in a 16-month-old child. Acta Paediatrica Belgica, 34(2), 89-91.
  • Blank, M. A., Fuortes, M., Nyren, O., Jaffe, B. M., Blank, M. A., Fuortes, M., et al. (1991). Effect of endothelin-1 and vasoactive intestinal contractor on blood flow and output of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the feline colon. Life Sciences, 48(20), 1937-1944.
  • Blank, M. A., Kimura, K., Jaffe, B. M., Blank, M. A., Kimura, K., & Jaffe, B. M. (1988). Regulatory mechanisms in the luminal and portal release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide during vagal nerve stimulation in the cat. Regulatory Peptides, 23(1), 15-26.
  • Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Bloom, S. R., & Edwards, A. V. (1979). The relationship between release of vasoactive intestinal peptide in the salivary gland of the cat in response to parasympathetic stimulation and the atropine resistant vasodilatation [proceedings]. Journal of Physiology, 295, 35P-36P.
  • Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Bloom, S. R., & Edwards, A. V. (1980). Effects of autonomic stimulation on the release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from the gastrointestinal tract in the calf. Journal of Physiology, 299, 437-452.
  • Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Bloom, S. R., & Edwards, A. V. (1980). Vasoactive intestinal peptide in relation to atropine resistant vasodilatation in the submaxillary gland of the cat. Journal of Physiology, 300, 41-53.
  • Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., Mitchell, S. J., Bloom, S. R., Edwards, A. V., & Mitchell, S. J. (1979). Release of vasoactive intestinal peptide from the gastrointestinal tract in response to autonomic stimulation in the calf [proceedings]. Journal of Physiology, 289, 47P.
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