Psychology Wiki
Register
Advertisement
Nerve: Vagus nerve
Gray791
Plan of upper portions of glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves.
Gray793
Course and distribution of the glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves.
Latin nervus vagus
Gray's subject #205 910
Innervates Levator veli palatini, Salpingopharyngeus, Palatoglossus, Palatopharyngeus, Superior pharyngeal constrictor, Middle pharyngeal constrictor, Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
From
To
MeSH A08.800.800.120.900

The vagus nerve (also called pneumogastric nerve or cranial nerve X) is the tenth of twelve paired cranial nerves, and is the only nerve that starts in the brainstem (within the medulla oblongata) and extends, through the jugular foramen, down below the head, to the abdomen.

The medieval Latin word vagus means literally "Wandering" (the words vagrant, vagabond, and vague come from the same root). It is also called the pneumogastric nerve since it innervates both the lungs and the stomach.

Cranial Nerves
CN 0 - Cranial nerve zero
CN I - Olfactory
CN II - Optic
CN III - Oculomotor
CN IV - Trochlear
CN V - Trigeminal
CN VI - Abducens
CN VII - Facial
CN VIII - Vestibulocochlear
CN IX - Glossopharyngeal
CN X - Vagus
CN XI - Accessory
CN XII - Hypoglossal

Innervation[]

The vagus descends from the spinal cord in the carotid sheath, lateral to the carotid artery. It carries on past the aortic arch to dip inferiorly behind the left bronchus. Here it forms the pulmonary plexus, after giving rise to the recurrent laryngeal nerve.

The vagus nerve supplies motor parasympathetic fibers to all the organs except the suprarenal (adrenal) glands, from the neck down to the second segment of the transverse colon. The vagus also controls a few skeletal muscles, namely:

  • Levator veli palatini muscle
  • Salpingopharyngeus muscle
  • Palatoglossus muscle
  • Palatopharyngeus muscle
  • Superior, middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictors
  • Muscles of the larynx (speech).

This means that the vagus nerve is responsible for such varied tasks as heart rate, gastrointestinal peristalsis, sweating, and quite a few muscle movements in the mouth, including speech (via the recurrent laryngeal nerve) and keeping the larynx open for breathing. It also receives some sensation from the outer ear, via the Auricular branch (also known as Alderman's nerve) and part of the meninges.

The vagus nerve and the heart[]

Parasympathetic innervation of the heart is mediated by the vagus nerve. The right vagus innervates the Sinoatrial node. Parasympathetic hyperstimulation predisposes those affected to bradyarrhythmias. The left vagus when hyperstimulated predisposes the heart to Atrioventricular (AV) blocks.

At this location Otto Loewi first proved that nerves secrete substances called neurotransmitters which have effects on receptors in target tissues. Loewi described the substance released by the vagus nerve as vagusstoff, which was later found to be acetylcholine.

The vagus nerve has three associated nuclei, the dorsal motor nucleus, the nucleus ambiguus and the solitary nucleus.

Drugs that inhibit the muscarinic cholinergic receptor (anticholinergics) such as atropine and scopolamine are called vagolytic because they inhibit the action of the vagus nerve on the heart, gastrointestinal tract and other organs. Anticholinergic drugs increase heart rate and are used to treat bradycardia(slow heart rate) and asystole, which is when the heart has no electrical activity. Anticholinergic drugs relax the detrusor muscle and cause constipation which again involves the vagus nerve.

Bulimics and anorexics have high vagal activity which is associated with the arrhythmias seen in these patients.

Medical treatment involving the vagus nerve[]

Treatment of epilepsy[]

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy using a pacemaker-like device implanted in the chest is a treatment used since 1997 to control seizures in epilepsy patients.

Drug resistant or refractory seizures, myoclonic seizures and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome treated by VNS have all been recorded with neurovisceral (neuropsychiatric) porphyrias (acute intermittent porphyria, hereditary coproporphyria, variegate porphyria). These highly drug and environmentally induced genetic disorders can cause seizures, chronic epilepsy and significant damage to the neuroendocrine and peripheral nervous systems including marked vagal nerve dysfunction. Before implantation of VNS these genetic disorders should be investigated in patients with epilepsy since most antiseizure drugs are porphyrinogenic and aggravate porphyrias. Children require enzyme or DNA testing since significant porphyrin production and excretion may not occur prepuberty.

A degree of intermittent VNS can be achieved by daily breathing exercises (for example, Pranayama) over a period of several weeks. In some patients, such proactive relaxation exercises have been found to correlate with lower blood pressure and lower heart rate and more stable moods.[How to reference and link to summary or text] The Valsalva maneuver may activate the vagus nerve and is a "natural" way to achieve the same effect in some patients. Patients with atrial fibrillation, supraventricular tachycardia and other illnesses may be trained to perform the valsalva maneuver (or find it for themselves).

Treatment of depression[]

Main article: Depression - Vagus nerve stimulation

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has recently been approved for treating drug-resistant cases of clinical depression.[1] A convenient, non-invasive VNS device that stimulates an afferent branch of the vagus nerve is also being developed and will soon undergo trials.


Vagotomy (cutting of the vagus nerve) is a now-obsolete therapy that was performed for peptic ulcer disease.

Physical and emotional effects[]

Activation of the vagus nerve typically leads to a reduction in heart rate, blood pressure, or both. This occurs commonly in the setting of gastrointestinal illness such as viral gastroenteritis or acute cholecystitis, or in response to other stimuli, including carotid sinus massage, Valsalva maneuver, or pain from any cause, particularly having blood drawn. When the circulatory changes are great enough, vasovagal syncope results. Relative dehydration tends to amplify these responses.

Excessive activation of the vagal nerve during emotional stress, which is a parasympathetic overcompensation of a strong sympathetic nervous system response associated with stress, can also cause vasovagal syncope because of a sudden drop in blood pressure and heart rate. Vasovagal syncope affects young children and women more often. It can also lead to temporary loss of bladder control under moments of extreme fear.

Effects of vagus nerve lesions[]

The patient complains of hoarse voice, difficulty in swallowing and choking when drinking fluid.

Additional images[]


See also[]

References & Bibliography[]

  1. Nemeroff C, Mayberg H, Krahl S, McNamara J, Frazer A, Henry T, George M, Charney D, Brannan S (2006). VNS therapy in treatment-resistant depression: clinical evidence and putative neurobiological mechanisms.. Neuropsychopharmacology 31 (7): 1345-55. PMID 16641939. link

Key texts[]

Books[]

Papers[]

  • Adan, J., Escosa, M., & Ayuso-Mateos, J. L. (2005). Vagus nerve stimulation and psychosis. A single case report. Actas Espanolas de Psiquiatria, 33(2), 130-134.
  • Aldenkamp, A. P., Majoie, H. J. M., Berfelo, M. W., Evers, S. M. A. A., Kessels, A. G. H., Renier, W. O., et al. (2002). Long-term effects of 24-month treatment with vagus nerve stimulation on behaviour in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsy & Behavior, 3(5,Pt1), 475-479.
  • Aldenkamp, A. P., Van de Veerdonk, S. H. A., Majoie, H. J. M., Berfelo, M. W., Evers, S. M. A. A., Kessels, A. G. H., et al. (2001). Effects of 6 months of treatment with vagus nerve stimulation on behavior in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome in an open clinical and nonrandomized study. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(4,Part1), 343-350.
  • Ali, I. I., Pirzada, N. A., Kanjwal, Y., Wannamaker, B., Medhkour, A., Koltz, M. T., et al. (2004). Complete heart block with ventricular asystole during left vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(5), 768-771.
  • Allen, W. F. (1929). Effect on respiration, blood pressure, and carotid pulse of various inhaled and insufflated vapors when stimulating one cranial nerve and various combinations of cranial nerves. II. Vagus and vagotomy experiments. American Journal of Physiology, 87, 558-565.
  • Alsaadi, T. M., Laxer, K. D., Barbaro, N. M., Marks, W. J., Jr., & Garcia, P. (2001). Vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of bilateral independent temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 42(7), 954-956.
  • Andrade, D. M., Velazquez, J. L. P., & Wennberg, R. (2004). On the need for battery replacement before end of service in vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(4), 612-613.
  • Andrews, R. J. (2003). Neuroprotection trek--The next generation: Neuromodulation I. Techniques--Deep brain stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation, and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neuroprotective agents: Sixth International Conference., 1-13.
  • Andriola, M. R., & Vitale, S. A. (2001). Vagus nerve stimulation in the developmentally disabled. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(2), 129-134.
  • Arnedo, M. L., & Puerto, A. (1986). The functions of the vagus nerve in interoceptive learning. Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada, 41(3), 487-494.
  • Aubert, M., & Legros, J. (1963). Projections of the vagus nerve on the neocortex of the cat. Journal de Physiologie, 55, 109-110.
  • Bailey, P., & Bremer, F. (1938). A sensory cortical representation of the vagus nerve (with a note on the effects of low blood pressure on the cortical electrograms). Journal of Neurophysiology, 1, 405-412.
  • Bajbouj, M., Danker-Hopfe, H., Heuser, I., & Anghelescu, I. (2006). Long-Term Outcome of Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Rapid-Cycling Bipolar Disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(5), 837-838.
  • Berger, E. N., & Bolyarskaya, V. A. (1968). Changes in the cardio-inhibitory effect of stimulation of the vagus nerve on experimental disruption of adrenal function. Byulleten' Eksperimental'Noi Biologii i Meditsiny, 65(6), 41-42.
  • Bernstein, A. L., Barkan, H., & Hess, T. (2007). Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for pharmacoresistant epilepsy: Effect on health care utilization. Epilepsy & Behavior, 10(1), 134-137.
  • Bishop, G. H., Heinbecker, P., & O'Leary, J. (1934). The significance of frequency, number of impulses and fiber size in vasomotor responses to vagus and depressor nerve stimulation in the rabbit. American Journal of Physiology, 109, 409-421.
  • Blumer, D., Davies, K., Alexander, A., & Morgan, S. (2001). Major psychiatric disorders subsequent to treating epilepsy by vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(5), 466-472.
  • Bobkov, Y. G. (1966). The influence of aconitine on the conduction of excitation through the nodular ganglia of the vagus nerve. Farmakologiya i Toksikologiya, 29(4), 450-453.
  • Bodenlos, J. S., Borckardt, J. J., & George, M. S. (2008). Vagus nerve stimulation and food cravings: A response to Gibson and Mohiyeddini. Appetite, 51(1), 226-228.
  • Bohotin, C., Scholsem, M., Multon, S., Martin, D., Bohotin, V., & Schoenen, J. (2003). Vagus nerve stimulation in awake rats reduces formalin-induced nociceptive behaviour and fos-immunoreactivity in trigeminal nucleus caudalis. Pain, 101(1-2), 3-12.
  • Boon, P., Moors, I., De Herdt, V., & Vonck, K. (2006). Vagus nerve stimulation and cognition. Seizure, 15(4), 259-263.
  • Boothby, W. M., & Shamoff, V. N. (1915). A Study of the Late Effects of Division of the Pulmonary Branches of the Vagus Nerve on the Gaseous Metabolism, Gas Exchange, and Respiratory Mechanism in Dogs. American Journal of Physiology, 37, 418-432.
  • Borckardt, J. J., Kozel, F. A., Anderson, B., Walker, A., & George, M. S. (2005). Vagus nerve stimulation affects pain perception in depressed adults. Pain Research & Management, 10(1), 9-14.
  • Bunch, S., DeGiorgio, C. M., Krahl, S., Britton, J., Green, P., Lancman, M., et al. (2007). Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: Is output current correlated with acute response? Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 116(4), 217-220.
  • Buoni, S., Mariottini, A., Pieri, S., Zalaffi, A., Farnetani, M. A., Strambi, M., et al. (2004). Vagus nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy in children and young adults. Brain & Development, 26(3), 158-163.
  • Burlage, S. R. (1922). A study of the regeneration of the autonomic fibres in the vagus nerve of the sheep. American Journal of Physiology, 60, 350-356.
  • Carius, A., & Schulze-Bonhage, A. (2005). Trigeminal pain under vagus nerve stimulation. Pain, 118(1-2), 271-273.
  • Carpenter, L. L., Moreno, F. A., Kling, M. A., Anderson, G. M., Regenold, W. T., Labiner, D. M., et al. (2004). Effect of Vagus Nerve Stimulation on Cerebrospinal Fluid Monoamine Metabolites, Norepinephrine, and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Concentrations in Depressed Patients. Biological Psychiatry, 56(6), 418-426.
  • Ceskova, E. (2002). Vagus nerve stimulation. Ceska a Slovenska Psychiatrie, 98(5), 283-286.
  • Chae, J.-H., Nahas, Z., Lomarev, M., Denslow, S., Lorderbaum, J. P., Bohning, D. E., et al. (2003). A review of functional neuroimaging studies of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). Journal of Psychiatric Research, 37(6), 443-455.
  • Chang, H. C., Chia, K. F., Hse, C. H., & Lim, R. K. S. (1937). Humoral transmission of nerve impulses at central synapses. I. Sinus and vagus afferent nerves. Chinese Journal of Physiology, 12, 1-36.
  • Chase, M. R. (1916). An experimental study of the vagus nerve. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 26, 421-429.
  • Chase, M. R., & Ranson, S. W. (1914). The structure of the roots, trunk and branches of the vagus nerve. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 24, 31-60.
  • Chavel, S. M., Westerveld, M., & Spencer, S. (2003). Long-term outcome of vagus nerve stimulation for refractory partial epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(3), 302-309.
  • Chernyshova, G. V., & Pogosova, A. V. (1969). On the influence of the right and left vagus nerve on protein metabolism of the different regions of dog myocardium. Byulleten' Eksperimental'Noi Biologii i Meditsiny, 68(8), 51-53.
  • Clark, K. B., Naritoku, D. K., Smith, D. C., Browning, R. A., & Jensen, R. A. (1999). Enhanced recognition memory following vagus nerve stimulation in human subjects. Nature Neuroscience, 2(1), 94-98.
  • Cornioley, C. (1929). Clinical observations on the excitation of the vagus nerve in man. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift, 59, 1418-1421.
  • Cramer, J. A. (2001). Exploration of changes in health-related quality of life after 3 months of vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(5), 460-465.
  • Crawley, J. N. (1985). Neurochemical investigation of the afferent pathway from the vagus nerve to the nucleus tractus solitarius in mediating the "satiety syndrome" induced by systemic cholecystokinin. Peptides, 6(Suppl 1), 133-137.
  • Danielsson, S., Viggedal, G., Gillberg, C., & Olsson, I. (2008). Lack of effects of vagus nerve stimulation on drug-resistant epilepsy in eight pediatric patients with autism spectrum disorders: A prospective 2-year follow-up study. Epilepsy & Behavior, 12(2), 298-304.
  • de Alcantara, A. C. L., Salgado, H. C., & Fazan, V. P. S. (2008). Morphology and morphometry of the vagus nerve in male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats. Brain Research, 1197, 170-180.
  • De Herdt, V., Boon, P., Vonck, K., Goossens, L., Nieuwenhuis, L., Paemeleire, K., et al. (2003). Are psychotic symptoms related to vagus nerve stimulation in epilepsy patients? Acta Neurologica Belgica, 103(3), 170-175.
  • Dedeurwaerdere, S., Vonck, K., De Herdt, V., Waterschoot, L., De Smedt, T., Raedt, R., et al. (2006). Neuromodulation with levetiracetam and vagus nerve stimulation in experimental animal models of epilepsy. Acta Neurologica Belgica, 106(2), 91-97.
  • Dorr, A. E., & Debonnel, G. (2006). Effect of Vagus Nerve Stimulation on Serotonergic and Noradrenergic Transmission. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 318(2), 890-898.
  • Elger, C. E., & Hoppe, C. (2002). Vagus nerve stimulation and mood. The neuropsychiatry of epilepsy., 283-295.
  • Ergene, E., Behr, P. K., & Shih, J. J. (2001). Quality-of-life assessment in patients treated with vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(3,Part1), 284-287.
  • Erlanger, J. (1905). On the Union of a Spinal Nerve with the Vagus Nerve. American Journal of Physiology(XIII), 372-395.
  • Fallgatter, A. J., Ehlis, A.-C., Ringel, T. M., & Herrmann, M. J. (2005). Age effect on far field potentials from the brain stem after transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 56(1), 37-43.
  • Flo, G., Van Boven, M., Vermaut, S., Daenens, P., Decuypere, E., & Cokelaere, M. (2000). The vagus nerve is involved in the anorexigenic effect of simmondsin in the rat. Appetite, 34(2), 147-151.
  • Flood, J. F., Smith, G. E., & Morley, J. E. (1987). Modulation of memory processing by cholecystokinin: Dependence on the vagus nerve. Science, 236(4803), 832-834.
  • Foley, J. O., & Dubois, F. S. (1933). Experimental and anatomical studies on the vagus nerve of the cat. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, 30, 571-572.
  • Follesa, P., Biggio, F., Gorini, G., Caria, S., Talani, G., Dazzi, L., et al. (2007). Vagus nerve stimulation increases norepinephrine concentration and the gene expression of BDNF and bFGF in the rat brain. Brain Research, 1179, 28-34.
  • Frick, C., Kosel, M., Schlaepfer, T. E., Stanga, Z., & Hasdemir, M. G. (2005). Incident Mania During Therapy With Vagus Nerve Stimulation. Journal of ECT, 21(3).
  • Galli, R., Bonanni, E., Pizzanelli, C., Maestri, M., Lutzemberger, L., Giorgi, F. S., et al. (2003). Daytime vigilance and quality of life in epileptic patients treated with vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(2), 185-191.
  • Garcia-Diaz, D. E., Aguilar-Baturoni, H. U., Guevara-Aguilar, R., & Wayner, M. J. (1984). Vagus nerve stimulation modifies the electrical activity of the olfactory bulb. Brain Research Bulletin, 12(5), 529-537.
  • Gates, J., Huf, R., & Frost, M. (2001). Vagus nerve stimulation for patients in residential treatment facilities. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(6,Part1), 563-567.
  • George, M. S., Nahas, Z., Bohning, D. E., Kozel, F. A., Anderson, B., Mu, C., et al. (2006). Vagus Nerve Stimulation and Deep Brain Stimulation. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of mood disorders., 337-349.
  • Gesell, R. A. (1916). Cardiodynamics in heart block as affected by auricular systole, auricular fibrillation and stimulation of the vagus nerve. American Journal of Physiology, 40, 267-313.
  • Ghacibeh, G. A., Shenker, J. I., Shenal, B., Uthman, B. M., & Heilman, K. M. (2006). Effect of vagus nerve stimulation on creativity and cognitive flexibility. Epilepsy & Behavior, 8(4), 720-725.
  • Ghacibeh, G. A., Shenker, J. I., Shenal, B., Uthman, B. M., & Heilman, K. M. (2006). The Influence of Vagus Nerve Stimulation on Memory. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 19(3), 119-122.
  • Gibson, A. (1915). Bilateral Abnormal Relationship of the Vagus Nerve in its Cervical Portion. J. of Anat. & Physiol, 49, 243-273.
  • Gibson, E. L., & Mohiyeddini, C. (2008). Vagus nerve stimulation confuses appetite: Comment on Bodenlos et al. (2007). Appetite, 51(1), 223-225.
  • Gilson, A. S. (1931). The "iterative" nature of the vagus nerve fibers to the heart. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, 28, 879-881.
  • Goehler, L. E., Gaykema, R. P. A., Nguyen, K. T., Lee, J. E., Tilders, F. J. H., Maier, S. F., et al. (1999). Interleukin-1beta in immune cells of the abdominal vagus nerve: A link between the immune and nervous system? Journal of Neuroscience, 19(7), 2799-2806.
  • Hallbook, T., Lundgren, J., Blennow, G., Stromblad, L.-G., & Rosen, I. (2005). Long term effects on epileptiform activity with vagus nerve stimulation in children. Seizure, 14(8), 527-533.
  • Hallbook, T., Lundgren, J., Stjernqvist, K., Blennow, G., Stromblad, L.-G., & Rosen, I. (2005). Vagus nerve stimulation in 15 children with therapy resistant epilepsy; its impact on cognition, quality of life, behaviour and mood. Seizure, 14(7), 504-513.
  • Harden, C. L. (2001). Mood changes in epilepsy patients treated with vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(3,Part2), S17-S20.
  • Harden, C. L., Pulver, M. C., Ravdin, L. D., Nikolov, B., Halper, J. P., & Labar, D. R. (2000). A pilot study of mood in epilepsy patients treated with vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 1(2), 93-99.
  • Heinbecker, P. (1931). The potential analysis of the turtle and cat sympathetic and vagus nerve trunks. American Journal of Physiology, 93, 284-306.
  • Heinbecker, P., & O'Leary, J. (1933). The mammalian vagus nerve; a functional and histological study. American Journal of Physiology, 106, 623-646.
  • Heinbecker, P., & O'Leary, J. (1933). Nature and function of certain fibers of the vagus--a new concept in peripheral nerve organization. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, 30, 506-508.
  • Hessl, D. R., Deprey, L. J., Huff, R. L., Ruiz, L., & Hagerman, R. J. (2004). Vagus Nerve Stimulation in an Adult Male With Fragile X Syndrome. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental Disabilities, 7(3), 107-113.
  • Hill, I. G. W. (1932). Stimulation of the vagus nerve and carotid sinus in man. Quar. J. Exper. Physiol, 22, 79-93.
  • Hillenbrand, C. (1936). Studies on the mechanism of reflex acceleration of respiration through afferent fibers in the vagus nerve. American Journal of Physiology, 116.
  • Hoppe, C., Helmstaedter, C., Scherrmann, J., & Elger, C. E. (2001). No evidence for cognitive side effects after 6 months of vagus nerve stimulation in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(4,Part1), 351-356.
  • Hoppe, C., Helmstaedter, C., Scherrmann, J., & Elger, C. E. (2001). Self-reported mood changes following 6 months of vagus nerve stimulation in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(4,Part1), 335-342.
  • Hord, E. D., Evans, M. S., Mueed, S., Adamolekun, B., & Naritoku, D. K. (2003). The effect of vagus nerve stimulation on migraines. The Journal of Pain, 4(9), 530-534.
  • Howland, R. H. (2006). What is vagus nerve stimulation? Journal of Psychosocial Nursing & Mental Health Services, 44(8), 11-14.
  • Huf, R. L., Mamelak, A., & Kneedy-Cayem, K. (2005). Vagus nerve stimulation therapy: 2-year prospective open-label study of 40 subjects with refractory epilepsy and low IQ who are living in long-term care facilities. Epilepsy & Behavior, 6(3), 417-423.
  • Hufnagel, A., Leniger, T., & Kramer, G. (2004). Vagus nerve stimulation: Current place in epilepsy therapy. Nervenheilkunde: Zeitschrift fur interdisziplinaere Fortbildung, 23(4), 204-209.
  • Jones, R. L. (1932). Components of the vagus nerve. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, 29, 1138-1141.
  • Kirchner, A., Birklein, F., Stefan, H., & Handwerker, H. O. (2000). Left vagus nerve stimulation suppresses experimentally induced pain. Neurology, 55(8), 1167-1171.
  • Kirchner, A., Stefan, H., Bastian, K., & Birklein, F. (2006). Vagus nerve stimulation suppresses pain but has limited effects on neurogenic inflammation in humans. European Journal of Pain, 10(5), 449-455.
  • Klein, J. P., Jean-Baptiste, M., Thompson, J. L., & Bowers, M. B., Jr. (2003). A case report of hypomania following vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64(4).
  • Konsman, J. P., Luheshi, G. N., Bluthe, R.-M., & Dantzer, R. (2000). The vagus nerve mediates behavioural depression, but not fever, in response to peripheral immune signals: A functional anatomical analysis. European Journal of Neuroscience, 12(12), 4434-4446.
  • Koren, M. S., & Holmes, M. D. (2006). Vagus nerve stimulation does not lead to significant changes in body weight in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 8(1), 246-249.
  • Kosel, M., & Schlaepfer, T. E. (2002). Mechanisms and state of the art of vagus nerve stimulation. Journal of ECT, 18(4), 189-192.
  • Kossof, E. H., & Pyzik, P. L. (2004). Improvement in alertness and behavior in children treated with combination topiramate and vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(2), 256-259.
  • Kossoff, E. H., Pyzik, P. L., Rubenstein, J. E., Bergqvist, A. G. C., Buchhalter, J. R., Donner, E. J., et al. (2007). Combined Ketogenic Diet and Vagus Nerve Stimulation: Rational Polytherapy? Epilepsia, 48(1), 77-81.
  • Kostov, H., Larsson, P. G., & Roste, G. K. (2007). Is vagus nerve stimulation a treatment option for patients with drug-resistant idiopathic generalized epilepsy? Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 115(Suppl 187), 55-58.
  • Kozniewski, S. (1967). Role of nervous mediators and influence of the vagus nerve stimulation on the rumen contractions in sheep. Acta Physiologica Polonica, 18(6), 751-768.
  • Labiner, D. M., & Ahern, G. L. (2007). Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in depression and epilepsy: Therapeutic parameter settings. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 115(1), 23-33.
  • Laptev, I. I. (1949). The formation of conditioned reflexes with a field of reception, which has gotten heterogeneous innervation (vagus nerve along with the ciliary nerves). Problemy vysshei nervnoi deiatel'nosti., 272-280.
  • Larsell, O., & Mason, M. L. (1921). Experimental degeneration of the vagus nerve and its relation to the nerve terminations in the lung of the rabbit. Journal of Comparative Neurology (and Psychology), 33, 509-516.
  • Lawrentjew, B. I. (1927). The fiber ending of the vagus nerve in the mammal heart. Anatomische Anzeiger, 64, 59-62.
  • Lenaerts, M. E., Oommen, K. J., Couch, J. R., & Skaggs, V. (2008). Can vagus nerve stimulation help migraine? Cephalalgia, 28(4), 392-395.
  • Li, Y.-L., Chen, Z.-Y., Ma, J., & Chen, Y.-H. (2008). Simulation study of stimulation parameters in desynchronisation based on the Hodgkin-Huxley small-world neural networks and its possible implications for vagus nerve stimulation. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 20(1), 25-32.
  • Liu, M.-Y., Chiang, J. P.-J., Hsu, D.-Z., & Deng, J.-F. (2003). Abamectin attenuates gastric mucosal damage induced by ethanol through activation of vagus nerve in rats. Alcohol, 30(1), 61-65.
  • Liu, W.-C., Mosier, K., Kalnin, A. J., & Marks, D. (2003). BOLD fMRI activation induced by vagus nerve stimulation in seizure patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 74(6), 811-813.
  • Lomarev, M., Denslow, S., Nahas, Z., Chae, J.-H., George, M. S., & Bohning, D. E. (2002). Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) synchronized BOLD fMRI suggest that VNS in depressed adults has frequency/dose dependent effects. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 36(4), 219-227.
  • Luckhardt, A. B., & Carlson, A. J. (1921). Studies on the visceral sensory nervous system. VIII. On the presence of vasomotor fibres in the vagus nerve to the pulmonary vessels of the amphibian and the reptilian lung. American Journal of Physiology, 56, 72-112.
  • Macwilliam, J. A. (1930). The action of the vagus nerve on the mammalian heart. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, 20, 149-192.
  • Major, P., & Thiele, E. A. (2008). Vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis complex. Epilepsy & Behavior, 13(2), 357-360.
  • Malow, B. A., Edwards, J., Marzec, M., Sagher, O., Ross, D., & Fromes, G. (2001). Vagus nerve stimulation reduces daytime sleepiness in epilepsy patients. Neurology, 57(5), 879-884.
  • Martin, C. O., Denburg, N. L., Tranel, D., Granner, M. A., & Bechara, A. (2004). The effects of vagus nerve stimulation on decision-making. Cortex, 40(4-5), 605-612.
  • Martinez, J. M., Marangell, L. B., & Hollrah, L. (2005). Vagus nerve stimulation: Current use and potential applications in child and adolescent psychiatry. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(1), 177-191.
  • Marzec, M., Edwards, J., Sagher, O., Fromes, G., & Malow, B. A. (2003). Effects of vagus nerve stimulation on sleep-related breathing in epilepsy patients. Epilepsia, 44(7), 930-935.
  • McLachlan, R. S., Sadler, M., Pillay, N., Guberman, A., Jones, M., Wiebe, S., et al. (2003). Quality of Life after Vagus Nerve Stimulation for Intractable Epilepsy: Is Seizure Control the Only Contributing Factor? European Neurology, 50(1), 16-19.
  • McSwiney, B. A., & Robson, J. M. (1929). The response of smooth muscle to stimulation of the vagus nerve. Journal of Physiology, 68, 124-131.
  • McSwiney, B. A., & Wadge, W. J. (1928). Effects of variations in intensity and frequency on the contractions of the stomach obtained by stimulation of the vagus nerve. Journal of Physiology, 65, 350-356.
  • Meltzer, S. J., & Wollenstein, M. (1919). The influence of one vagus nerve upon the development of pneumonia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 5, 493-496.
  • Mercer, J. G., Farningham, D. A., & Lawrence, C. B. (1992). Effect of neonatal capsaicin treatment on cholecystokinin-(CCK8) satiety and axonal transport of CCK binding sites in the rat vagus nerve. Brain Research, 569(2), 311-316.
  • Merrill, C. A., Jonsson, M. A. G., Minthon, L., Ejnell, H., C-son Silander, H., Blennow, K., et al. (2006). Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Patients With Alzheimer's Disease: Additional Follow-Up Results of a Pilot Study Through 1 Year. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(8), 1171-1178.
  • Milby, A. H., Halpern, C. H., & Baltuch, G. H. (2008). Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy and depression. Neurotherapeutics, 5(1), 75-85.
  • Miyashita, T., & Williams, C. L. (2006). Epinephrine administration increases neural impulses propagated along the vagus nerve: Role of peripheral beta -adrenergic receptors. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 85(2), 116-124.
  • Montavont, A., Demarquay, G., Ryvlin, P., Rabilloud, M., Guenot, M., Ostrowsky, K., et al. (2007). Long-term efficiency of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) in non-surgical refractory epilepsies in adolescents and adults. Revue Neurologique, 163(12), 1169-1177.
  • Morris, G. L., III. (2003). A retrospective analysis of the effects of magnet-activated stimulation in conjunction with vagus nerve stimulation therapy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(6), 740-745.
  • Mravec, B. (2006). Possible involvement of the vagus nerve in monitoring plasma catecholamine levels. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 86(3), 353-355.
  • Mravec, B. (2007). Does the vagus nerve mediate the effects of polyunsaturated fatty acid treatment on behavioral, neuroendocrine and cytokine changes elicited by exogenous interleukin-1beta challenge? Journal of Neuroimmunology, 185(1-2), 208-210.
  • Mu, Q., Bohning, D. E., Nahas, Z., Walker, J., Anderson, B., Johnson, K. A., et al. (2004). Acute Vagus Nerve Stimulation Using Different Pulse Widths Produces Varying Brain Effects. Biological Psychiatry, 55(8), 816-825.
  • Multon, S., & Schoenen, J. (2005). Pain control by vagus nerve stimulation: From animal to man...and back. Acta Neurologica Belgica, 105(2), 62-67.
  • Narayanan, J. T., Watts, R., Haddad, N., Labar, D. R., Li, P. M., & Filippi, C. G. (2002). Cerebral activation during vagus nerve stimulation: A functional MR study. Epilepsia, 43(12), 1509-1514.
  • Neu, P., Heuser, I., & Bajbouj, M. (2005). Cerebral Blood Flow during Vagus Nerve Stimulation - a Transcranial Doppler Study. Neuropsychobiology, 51(4), 265-268.
  • Nogueira, P. J. C., Tomaz, C., & Williams, C. L. (1994). Contribution of the vagus nerve in mediating the memory-facilitating effects of substance P. Behavioural Brain Research, 62(2), 165-169.
  • Nolf, P. (1934). The extrinsic nerves in the intestines of birds. I. The vagus nerves. II. The celiac and mesenteric nerves. III. Remak's nerve. Archives Internationales de Physiologie, 39, 113-256.
  • O'Keane, V., Dinan, T. G., Scott, L., & Corcoran, C. (2005). Changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis measures after vagus nerve stimulation therapy in chronic depression. Biological Psychiatry, 58(12), 963-968.
  • Omorokov, L. I. (1937). The question of the possibility of changing the phylogenetic connections in the system of the vagus nerve in man. Nevrologiya i Psikhiatriya, 1, 95-101.
  • Park, Y. D. (2003). The effects of vagus nerve stimulation therapy on patients with intractable seizures and either Landau-Kleffner syndrome or autism. Epilepsy & Behavior, 4(3), 286-290.
  • Parker, G. H. (1929). Carbon dioxide from the unsevered vagus nerve of the snake. Journal of General Physiology, 12, 419-426.
  • Partridge, R. C. (1933). Afferent impulses in the vagus nerve. Journal of Cellular & Comparative Physiology, 2, 367-380.
  • Powley, T. L., Martinson, F. A., Phillips, R. J., Jones, S., Baronowsky, E. A., & Swithers, S. E. (2001). Gastrointestinal projection maps of the vagus nerve are specified permanently in the perinatal period. Developmental Brain Research, 129(1), 57-72.
  • Putintseva, T. G., & Reshetnikova, N. A. (1968). On the biochemical link in the mechanism for emergence of "escape" of the heart from the influence of the vagus nerve. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal SSSR, 54(10), 1179-1185.
  • Ranson, S. W. (1915). The vagus nerve of the snapping turtle. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 25, 301-316.
  • Ranson, S. W., Foley, J. O., & Alpert, C. D. (1933). Observations on the structure of the vagus nerve. American Journal of Anatomy, 53, 289-315.
  • Richelson, E. (2007). Mechanisms of action of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). Psychiatric Annals, 37(3), 181-187.
  • Ritter, S., Dinh, T. T., & Friedman, M. I. (1994). Induction of Fos-like immunoreactivity (Fos-li) and stimulation of feeding by 2,5-anhydro-D-mannitol (2,5-AM) require the vagus nerve. Brain Research, 646(1), 53-64.
  • Rizzo, P., Beelke, M., De Carli, F., Canovaro, P., Nobili, L., Robert, A., et al. (2004). Modifications of sleep EEG induced by chronic vagus nerve stimulation in patients affected by refractory epilepsy. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115(3), 658-664.
  • Rizzo, P., Beelke, M., De Carli, F., Canovaro, P., Nobili, L., Robert, A., et al. (2003). Chronic Vagus Nerve Stimulation Improves Alertness and Reduces Rapid Eye Movement Sleep in Patients Affected by Refractory Epilepsy. Sleep: Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, 26(5), 607-611.
  • Rogers, F. T. (1920). On the regeneration of the vagus nerve. American Journal of Physiology, 53, 15-24.
  • Roosevelt, R. W., Smith, D. C., Clough, R. W., Jensen, R. A., & Browning, R. A. (2006). Increased extracellular concentrations of norepinephrine in cortex and hippocampus following vagus nerve stimulation in the rat. Brain Research, 1119(1), 124-132.
  • Rosenbaum, J. F., & Heninger, G. (2000). Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Biological Psychiatry, 47(4), 273-275.
  • Roslin, M., & Kurian, M. (2001). The use of electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve to treat morbid obesity. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(3,Part2), S11-S16.
  • Rowland, N. E. (2004). The vagus nerve and thirst. Physiology & Behavior, 82(1), 75-80.
  • Rozenshtraukh, L. V., Yushmanova, A. V., & Udel'nov, M. G. (1968). Sinoatrial conduction and its modification under the influence of the vagus nerve. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal SSSR, 54(2), 188-191.
  • Sachot, C., Rummel, C., Bristow, A. F., & Luheshi, G. N. (2007). The role of the vagus nerve in mediating the long-term anorectic effects of leptin. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 19(4), 250-261.
  • Sackeim, H. A. (2004). Vagus Nerve Stimulation. Brain stimulation in psychiatric treatment., 99-142.
  • Sackeim, H. A., Brannan, S. K., Rush, A. J., George, M. S., Marangell, L. B., & Allen, J. (2007). Durability of antidepressant response to vagus nerve stimulation (VNSTM). International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 10(6), 817-826.
  • Sackeim, H. A., Keilp, J. G., Rush, A. J., George, M. S., Marangell, L. B., Dormer, J. S., et al. (2001). The effects of vagus nerve stimulation on cognitive performance in patients with treatment-resistant depression. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology, 14(1), 53-62.
  • Schmidt, D. (2001). Vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2(3,Part2), S1-S5.
  • Sergeeva, Z. N., & Frankshtein, S. I. (1968). Electrotonic potentials of the primary terminals of the vagus nerve and the inhibitory Hering-Breuer reflex. Byulleten' Eksperimental'Noi Biologii i Meditsiny, 65(5), 15-18.
  • Sherman, E. M. S., Connolly, M. B., Slick, D. J., Eyrl, K. L., Steinbok, P., & Farrell, K. (2008). Quality of life and seizure outcome after vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy. Journal of Child Neurology, 23(9), 991-998.
  • Shields, W. D. (2004). Management of Epilepsy in Mentally Retarded Children Using the Newer Antiepileptic Drugs, Vagus Nerve Stimulation, and Surgery. Journal of Child Neurology, 19(Suppl1), S58-S64.
  • Sirotin, B. Z. (1967). BIOELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN THE GASTRIC BRANCHES OF THE VAGUS NERVE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BROWN-PIERCE'S SARCOMA IN THE STOMACH WALL OF RABBITS. Byulleten' Eksperimental'Noi Biologii i Meditsiny, 32(5), 85-86.
  • Sjogren, M. J. C., Hellstrom, P. T. O., Jonsson, M. A. G., Runnerstam, M., Silander, H. C. s., & Ben-Menachem, E. (2002). Cognition-enhancing effect of vagus nerve stimulation in patients with Alzheimer's disease: A pilot study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63(11), 972-980.
  • Sporn, A., & Lisanby, S. H. (2006). Non-pharmacological treatment modalities in children and adolescents: A review of electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation, magnetic seizure therapy, and deep brain stimulation. Clinical Neuropsychiatry: Journal of Treatment Evaluation, 3(3), 230-244.
  • Steffensen, E. H., Brookhart, J., & Gesell, R. (1937). Proprioceptive respiratory reflexes of the vagus nerve. American Journal of Physiology, 119, 517-526.
  • Stemper, B., Devinsky, O., Haendl, T., Welsch, G., & Hilz, M. J. (2008). Effects of vagus nerve stimulation on cardiovascular regulation in patients with epilepsy. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 117(4), 231-236.
  • Stoyanov, I. (1967). Change in the continuous secretion of the parotid gland on stimulation of the peripheral terminus of the vagus nerve. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal SSSR, 53(10), 1180-1185.
  • Tatum, W. O. I., Ferreira, J. A., Benbadis, S. R., Heriaud, L. S., Gieron, M., Rodgers-Neame, N. T., et al. (2004). Vagus nerve stimulation for pharmacoresistant epilepsy: Clinical symptoms with end of service. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(1), 128-132.
  • Tatum, W. O. I., Malek, A., Recio, M., Orlowski, J., & Murtagh, R. (2004). Diffusion-weighted imaging and status epilepticus during vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(3), 411-415.
  • Tatum, W. O. I. V., & Benbadis, S. R. (2004). Reply: Vagus nerve stimulation end of service. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(4), 613-615.
  • Tecoma, E. S., & Iragui, V. J. (2006). Vagus nerve stimulation use and effect in epilepsy: What have we learned? Epilepsy & Behavior, 8(1), 127-136.
  • Tucket, I. L. (1900). Note on the Regeneration of the Vagus Nerve. Journal of Physiology(XXV), 303-305.
  • Valdes-Cruz, A., Magdaleno-Madrigal, V. M., Martinez-Vargas, D., Fernandez-Mas, R., & Almazan-Alvarado, S. (2008). Long-term changes in sleep and electroencephalographic activity by chronic vagus nerve stimulation in cats. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 32(3), 828-834.
  • Veach, H. O. Stimulation of the vagus nerve. Science, 59, 260-261.
  • Warnell, R. L., & Elahi, N. (2007). Introduction of vagus nerve stimulation into a maintenance electroconvulsive therapy regimen: A case study and cost analysis. Journal of ECT, 23(2), 114-119.
  • Warwick, T. C., Griffith, J., Reyes, B., Legesse, B., & Evans, M. (2007). Effects of vagus nerve stimulation in a patient with temporal lobe epilepsy and Asperger syndrome: Case report and review of the literature. Epilepsy & Behavior, 10(2), 344-347.
  • Wilfong, A. A. (2002). Treatment considerations: Role of vagus nerve stimulator. Epilepsy & Behavior, 3(6), S41-S44.
  • You, S. J., Kang, H.-C., Ko, T.-S., Kim, H. D., Yum, M.-S., Hwang, Y. S., et al. (2008). Comparison of corpus callosotomy and vagus nerve stimulation in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Brain & Development, 30(3), 195-199.
  • Zaaimi, B., Grebe, R., Berquin, P., & Wallois, F. (2007). Vagus nerve stimulation therapy induces changes in heart rate of children during sleep. Epilepsia, 48(5), 923-930.
  • Zagon, A. (2001). Does the vagus nerve mediate the sixth sense? Trends in Neurosciences, 24(11), 671-673.
  • Zuo, Y., Smith, D. C., & Jensen, R. A. (2007). Vagus nerve stimulation potentiates hippocampal LTP in freely-moving rats. Physiology & Behavior, 90(4), 583-589.

Additional material[]

Books[]

Papers[]

Dissertations[]

  • Bell, T. P. (2007). A study of the effects of vagus nerve stimulation on anxiety in laboratory rats. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(5-B).
  • Clark, K. B. (1999). Studies investigating the role played by vagus nerve stimulation in the modulation of memory formation. (verbal recognition tasks, learning). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 60(4-B).
  • Markus, T. M. (2003). An investigation into the modulatory effects of vagus nerve stimulation on emotional expression in laboratory rats. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 63(9-B).
  • Krahl, S. E. (1995). Vagus nerve stimulation for the control of seizures: Possible modulatory role of the locus coeruleus. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 56(1-B).
  • Starbuck, E. M. (2001). The subfornical organ and vagus nerve: A similar role in hypernatremic thirst demonstrated by hypothalamic fos-immunoreactivity. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 62(5-B).
  • Talley, C. E. P. (1999). Peripheral nervous system influences on spontaneous alternation behavior: A role for the vagus nerve. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 60(1-B).
  • Tan, A. A. (2007). Effects of vagus nerve stimulation on recovery of function following controlled cortical impact brain injury. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 67(8-B).
  • Zuo, Y. (2006). An investigation of the modulatory effect of vagus nerve stimulation on hippocampal LTP in freely moving rats. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 66(11-B).

External links[]


This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).
Advertisement