Token economy programs

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A token economy is a system of behavior modification based on the principles of operant conditioning. Specifically, the original proposal for such a system emphasized reinforcing positive behavior by awarding "tokens" for meeting positive behavioral goals. The system, first implemented in a year-long study conducted by Teodoro Ayllon in Florida, was primarily geared towards changing adolescent behavior. The initial study included only adolescent males.

The tokens themselves were not reinforcers; tokens were accumulated and "spent" in order to obtain a reinforcer. Early during the program, a participant would be required to spend all of his or her tokens daily to emphasize the reinforcement activity early, and as time passed and success was made, participants would be allowed (or required) to accumulate their tokens over the course of longer time periods. This, as a variable-rate scheduling system, helped prevent extinction of the behavior after the program's termination.

Token economy systems have been tried in a number of situations including:

• Token economies in the treatment of schizophrenia
• Token economies in learning difficulties

Key texts

Papers

• Allen DJ, Magaro PA. Measures of change in token-economy programs. Behav Res Ther. 1971 Nov;9(4):311–318.

Kazdin A E (1982)The token economy: a decade later. J Appl Behav Anal. 1982 Fall; 15(3): 431–445. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1982.15-431.Full text

• Bassett JE, Blanchard EB. The effect of the absence of close supervision on the use of response cost in a prison token economy. J Appl Behav Anal. 1977 10(3):375–379.Fall;
• Breyer, Norman L.; Allen, George J. Effects of implementing a token economy on teacher attending behavior. J Appl Behav Anal. 1975 8(4):373–380.Winter;
• Burg MM, Reid DH, Lattimore J. Use of a self-recording and supervision program to change institutional staff behavior. J Appl Behav Anal. 1979 12(3):363–375.Fall;
• Fawcett, Stephen B.; Mathews, R Mark.; Fletcher, R Kay. Some promising dimensions for behavioral community technology. J Appl Behav Anal. 1980 13(3):505–518.Fall;
• Fullerton DT, Cayner JJ, McLaughlin-Reidel T. Results of a token economy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1978 Dec;35(12):1451–1453.
• Greenberg DJ. Beyond the token economy: a comparison of two contingency programs. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1975 Aug;43(4):498–503.
• Karraker RJ. Self versus teacher selected reinforcers in a token economy. Except Child. 1977 Apr;43(7):454–455.
• Kazdin, Alan E.; Bootzin, Richard R. The token economy: an evaluative review. J Appl Behav Anal. 1972 5(3):343–372.
• McCreadie RG, Main CJ, Dunlop RA. Token economy, pimozide and chronic schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1978 Aug;133:179–181.
• McReynolds WT, Coleman J. Token economy: patient and staff changes. Behav Res Ther. 1972 Feb;10(1):29–34.
• Mishara BL. Geriatric patients who improve in token economy and general milieu treatment programs: a multivariate analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1978 Dec;46(6):1340–1348.
• Reppucci ND, Saunders JT. Social psychology of behavior modification. Problems of implementation in natural settings. Am Psychol. 1974 Sep;29(9):649–660.
• Wexler, David B. Token and taboo: behavior modification, token economies, and the law. Calif Law Rev. 1973 Jan;61(1):81–109.
• Zeldow PB. Some antitherapeutic effects of the token economy: a case in point. Psychiatry. 1976 Nov;39(4):318–324.

Additional material

Papers

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