Communication theory

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There is much discussion in the academic world of communication as to what actually constitutes communication. Currently, many definitions of communication are used in order to conceptualize the processes by which people navigate and assign meaning.

We might say that communication consists of transmitting information from one person to another. In fact, many scholars of communication take this as a working definition, and use Lasswell's maxim, "who says what to whom in what channel with what effect," as a means of circumscribing the field of communication theory.

A simple communication model with a sender transferring a message containing information to a receiver.

Other commentators suggest that a ritual process of communication exists, one not artificially divorceable from a particular historical and social context.

Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.

Currently, there is no paradigm from which communication scholars may work. One of the issues facing scholars is the possibility that establishing a communication metatheory will negate their research and stifle the broad body of knowledge in which communication functions.

1 History of Communication Theory
2 Communication Theory Framework
3 Mapping the theoretical landscape
- 3.1 Contexts
- 3.2 Assumptions
4 Some realms of communication and their theories
5 Some theorists
6 See also
7 Bibliography
8 Further references
9 External links

[edit] History of Communication Theory

In the history of philosophy, Aristotle first addressed the problem of communication and attempted to work out a theory of it in The Rhetoric. He was primarily focused on the art of persuasion.

Humanistic and rhetorical viewpoints and theories dominated the discipline prior to the twentieth century, when more scientific methodologies and insights from psychology, sociology, linguistics and advertising began to influence communication thought and practice.

[edit] Communication Theory Framework

It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:

Mechanistic: This view considers communication to be a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.

Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.

Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.

Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominaist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective view the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.

Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world.

Axiology is concerned with what values drive a theorist to develop a theory. Theorists must be mindful of potential biases so that they will not influence or skew their findings (Miller, 21-23).

[edit] Mapping the theoretical landscape

A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.

[edit] Contexts

Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called "contexts" or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism. While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.

These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.

[edit] Assumptions

Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. While this approach also tends to have as its basis institutional divisions, theories within each of the seven "traditions" of communication theory that Robert Craig suggests tend to reinforce one another, and retain the same ground epistemological and axiological assumptions. His traditions include:

rhetorical - practical art of discourse
semiotic – intersubjective mediation through signs
phenomenological - experience of otherness, dialogue
cybernetic - information processing
sociopsychological - expression, interaction and influence
critical - discursive reflection
sociocultural - reproduction of social order (Miller, 13)

Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.

While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, it seems that they decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis, McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.

[edit] Some realms of communication and their theories

message production: Constructivist Theory, Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Theory, Inoculation Theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory, Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory, Social Penetration Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory, Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory, Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: agenda setting, spiral of silence
culture: Speech Codes Theory, Face-saving Theory (Miller, v-viii)
Symbolic Convergence Theory

72.20.138.101 14:53, 7 May 2007 (UTC)== More Information ==

There is a wealth of information available about communication and communication theory. Included here are some examples of texts, journals, and organizations focusing on communication theory.

The following list is a survey of Communication Theory texts currently available on Amazon.com:

Communication Theory: Epistemological Foundations by James A. Anderson
Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media (5th Edition) by Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard
Communication: Theories and Applications by Mark V. Redmond
Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts by Katherine Miller
Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society by David Holmes
Building Communication Theory by Dominic A. Infante, Andrew S. Rancer, and Deanna F. Womack
The Communication Theory Reader by Paul Cobley
Clarifying Communications Theories: A Hands-On Approach by Gerald Stone, Michael Singletary, and Virginia P. Richmond
An Introduction to Communication Theory by Don W. Stacks, Sidney R. Hill, and Mark, III Hickson

Scholarly journals are also a great source for recent research and academic discussion of theory. Some communication journals that emphasize theory are as follows:

Argumentation
Communication Abstracts
Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies
Communication Education
Communication Monographs
Communication Quarterly & Communication Research Reports
Communication Research
Communication Studies
Communication Theory
Communications and the Law
Continuum - Journal of Media and Cultural Studies
Critical Studies in Media Communication
Discourse Studies
Howard Journal of Communications
Human Communication Research
Journal of Applied Communication Research
Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media
Journal of Communication
Journal of Communication Inquiry
Journal of Language Identity and Education
Journal of Mass Media Ethics
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
Journal of Public Relations Research
Journal of Technical Writing and Communication
Journalism - Theory Practice and Criticism
Journalism History
Journalism Studies
Language in Society
Listening - Journal of Religion and Culture
Mass Communication and Society
Media Culture and Society
Multilingua - Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication
New Media and Society
Philosophy and Rhetoric : Paper for Muse Participants
Political Communication
PR Reporter
Public Relations Quarterly
Rhetoric and Public Affairs
Rhetorica
Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse
Vital Speeches of the Day
Women's Studies in Communication
Word and Image
Written Communication

Finally, there are many Communication Organizations that create a network of scholars who actively pursue and test theories. These organizations usually hold an annual conference showcasing the latest and best research in the field, as well as publish scholarly Journals. Examples of Communication Organizations with contact information are:

[edit] Some theorists

A list of people who have contributed to communication theory in its broadest sense includes:

[edit] See also

[edit] Bibliography

Emory A Griffin, A first look at communication theory. 3rd edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-022822-1
Miller, K., Communication Theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Werner, E., "Cooperating Agents: A Unified Theory of Communication and Social Structure", Distributed Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 2, L. Gasser and M. Huhns, eds., Morgan Kaufmann and Pitman Press, 1989. Abstract
Werner, E., "Toward a Theory of Communication and Cooperation for Multiagent Planning", Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning About Knowledge: Proceedings of the Second Conference, Morgan Kaufman Publishers, pp. 129-143, 1988.

Abstract PDF

[edit] Further references

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