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[[Image:Occam.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Occam's Razor]] "non sunt multiplicanda entia praeter necessitatem" or "plurality should not be posited without necessity" is a central tenet of skeptical thought.]]
  
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'''Philosophical skepticism''' (UK spelling, '''scepticism'''), or '''pyrrhonism''',
 
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is a philosophical position that refrains from making truth claims.
  
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A skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be
 
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a truth claim). The word is commonly used to describe other philosophies
  
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which appear similar, for instance "academic" skepticism, which was an
  
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ancient variant of platonism according to which knowledge of truth was
  
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impossible. [[Empiricism]] is a closely related position which can be
  
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seen as a pragmatic compromise between skepticism and nomothetic science;
  
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skepticism is sometimes refered to as "radical empiricism."
  
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Additionally, the word "skeptic" is commonly used in today's [[vernacular]] to describe someone who habitually doubts commonly accepted ideas. It can also refer to any position of doubt, as in "This page contains statements about which one might reasonably be skeptical." Hence the heading of this page warning about the non-neutral point of view in which this page is written. For this, a healthy dose of skepticism is recommended.
  
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== Variance in spelling ==
  
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The two spellings of the word depend originally on whether Greek (''skepsis'') or Latin (''scepticus'') is taken as a model. Much as with ''-ize''/''-ise'' endings for words, both spellings are correct, but ''skepticism'' is normally used in [[North American English]] while ''scepticism'' is usually preferred in [[Commonwealth English]] (with some exceptions). The Australian Skeptics, despite using Commonwealth English, use the North American spelling for their organisation, perhaps to distance themselves from the historic definition of ''scepticism'' which is more akin to cynicism which Australian Skeptics view as the polar opposite of Skepticism.
  
 
{{PhilPsy}}
  
{{PhilPsy}}
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== Philosophical skepticism ==
  
   
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{{Certainty}}
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[[Philosophical skepticism]] originated in ancient [[Greek philosophy]]. One of its first proponents was [[Pyrrho]] of [[Elis]] (c. 360-275 B.C.), who travelled and studied as far as India, and propounded the adoption of 'practical' skepticism. Subsequently, in the 'New Academy' [[Arcesilaos]] (c. 315-241 B.C.) and [[Carneades]] (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted. Carneades criticised the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of [[Stoicism]], asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. [[Sextus Empiricus]] (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of [[empiricism]] into the basis for asserting knowledge.
  
   
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'''Skepticism''' (or '''scepticism''') has many definitions, but generally refers to any questioning attitude of knowledge, facts, or opinions/beliefs stated as facts,<ref>See R. H. Popkin, The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (rev. ed. 1968); C. L. Stough, Greek Skepticism (1969); M. Burnyeat, ed., The Skeptical Tradition (1983); B. Stroud, The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism (1984). [http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Skeptikoi Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com]</ref> or doubt regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere.<ref>"Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm URM.edu]</ref> The word may characterise a position on a single matter, as in the case of religious skepticism, which is "doubt concerning basic religious principles (such as immortality, providence, and revelation)",<ref>Merriam–Webster</ref> but [[philosophical skepticism]] is an overall approach that requires all new information to be well supported by evidence.<ref>"Philosophical skepticism should be distinguished from ordinary skepticism, where doubts are raised against certain beliefs or types of beliefs because the evidence for the particular belief or type of belief is weak or lacking..." [http://www.skepdic.com/skepticism.html Skepdic.com]</ref> Skeptics may even doubt the reliability of their own senses.<ref>"...the two most influential forms of skepticism have, arguably, been the radical epistemological skepticism of the classical Pyrrhonian skeptics and the Cartesian form of radical epistemological skepticism" [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm UTM.edu]</ref> Classical philosophical skepticism derives from the 'Skeptikoi', a school who "asserted nothing".<ref>Liddell and Scott</ref> Adherents of [[Pyrrhonism]], for instance, suspend judgment in investigations.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines Of Pyrrhonism,'' Translated by R. G. Bury, [[Harvard University Press]], Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 21</ref>
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Greek skeptics criticised the [[Stoics]], accusing them of [[dogmatism]]. For the skeptics, the [[logical]] mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the [[regress argument]], whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity. In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a [[circular argument]] (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth which could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in actual fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.
  
   
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==Definition==
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== Religious and scientific skepticism ==
  
   
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In ordinary usage, skepticism (US) or scepticism (UK) ([[Ancient Greek|Greek:]] 'σκέπτομαι' ''skeptomai'', to think, to look about, to consider; see also [[American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences|spelling differences]]) refers to:
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[[Religious skepticism]] and [[scientific skepticism]] are not actually related to [[philosophical skepticism]]. Most people who are skeptical of claims of the [[paranormal]] and [[supernatural]] are not adherents of classical philosophical skepticism. Whereas a philosophical skeptic may deny the very existence of knowledge, a religious or scientific skeptic merely seeks proof before accepting extraordinary claims. Scientific skeptics employ [[Critical thinking|critical thinking]].
  
   
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* (a) an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object;
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Religious skeptics often focus on the core tenets of religions, such as the existence of divine beings or reports of earthly miracles, while scientific skeptics tend to target cryptozoology, UFO encounters, and alternative science. Specifically when critics of controversial religious, scientific or paranormal claims are said to be ''skeptical'', this only refers to their taking a position of doubt.
  
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* (b) the [[doctrine]] that true [[knowledge]] or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain; or
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* (c) the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster).
   
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In [[philosophy]], skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about:
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=== Skeptics and cynics ===
  
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*(a) an inquiry,
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*(b) a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing,
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*(c) the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
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*(d) the limitations of knowledge,
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*(e) a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment.
   
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==Scientific skepticism==
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Scientific skeptics are often confused with, or even denounced as, [[cynicism|cynics]]. However, useful skeptical criticism must involve an objective and methodological examination of the subject. Cynicism, on the other hand, is a viewpoint that maintains a generally negative attitude toward human motivations and sincerity. While the two positions are not mutually exclusive, each represents a fundamentally different philosophical approach to understanding the nature of the world.
  
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{{Main|Scientific skepticism}}
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A scientific (or [[empirical]]) skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some form of the [[scientific method]].<ref>[http://skeptoid.com/skeptic.php Skeptoid.com]: ''What is skepticism?''</ref> As a result, [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience|a number of claims]] are considered "[[pseudoscience]]" if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. [[Scientific]] skepticism does not address religious beliefs, since these beliefs are, by definition, outside the realm of systematic, [[empirical]] testing/knowledge.
   
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==Philosophical skepticism==
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Many critics accuse scientific skeptics of being "closed-minded" or of inhibiting scientific progress. However, some supporters of scientific skepticism argue that these criticisms come from [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientists]], [[paranormal|paranormalists]], and [[spiritualism|spiritualists]] who are motivated to discredit rational investigation of their claims.
  
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{{Main|Philosophical skepticism}}
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In philosophical skepticism, [[pyrrhonism]] is a position that refrains from making truth claims. A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical skepticism, such as [[academic skepticism]], an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible. [[Empiricism]] is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical skepticism and [[nomothetic]] science; philosophical skepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism."
   
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Philosophical skepticism originated in ancient [[Greek philosophy]].<ref>[http://www.philosophyonline.co.uk/tok/scepticism8.htm Scepticism – History of Scepticism]</ref> The Greek [[Sophism|Sophists]] of the 5th century BC were for the most part skeptics. [[Pyrrhonism]] was a school of skepticism founded by [[Aenesidemus]] in the first century BC and recorded by [[Sextus Empiricus]] in the late 2nd century or early 3rd century AD. One of its first proponents was [[Pyrrho]] of [[Elis]] (c. 360-275 B.C.), who traveled and studied as far as [[Indian philosophy|India]] and propounded the adoption of "practical" skepticism. Subsequently, in the "New Academy" [[Arcesilaus]] (c. 315-241 B.C.) and [[Carneades]] (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted as uncertain. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of [[Stoicism]], asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. [[Sextus Empiricus]] (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of [[empiricism]] into the basis for asserting knowledge.
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=== Debunkers ===
  
   
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Greek skeptics criticized the [[Stoics]], accusing them of [[dogmatism]]. For the skeptics, the [[logic]]al mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the [[regress argument]], whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity (see the five [[Trope (philosophy)|tropes]] of [[Agrippa the Sceptic]]). In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a [[circular argument]] (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics, such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth and could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.
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[[Debunker]]s are a particular group of skeptics who are adept at exposing the truth behind the extraordinary claims of charlatans. Famous debunkers include [[James Randi]], [[Michael Shermer]], [[Basava Premanand]], [[Penn and Teller]] and [[Harry Houdini]].
 
   
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In [[Islamic philosophy]], skepticism was established by [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058–1111), known in the West as "Algazel", as part of the orthodox [[Ash'ari]] school of [[Islamic theology]], whose method of skepticism shares many similarities with Descartes' method.<ref name=Najm>{{citation|title=The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali|first=Sami M.|last=Najm|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=16|issue=3–4|date=July–October 1966|pages=133–141|doi=10.2307/1397536|publisher=Philosophy East and West, Vol. 16, No. 3/4|jstor=1397536}}</ref>
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Since the issues of dispute being treated usually require deep understanding of a subject, heated discussions may arise in the public based more on one's own opinion rather than factual analysis. [[Flame war]]s can arise in the public, with debunkers offended by the deception of charlatans and the gullibility of their public, and the latter ones offended by the allegations of the debunkers.
  
   
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[[René Descartes]] is credited for developing a global skepticism as a [[thought experiment]] in his attempt to find absolute certainty on which to base the foundation of his philosophy. Descartes discussed skeptical arguments from [[Dream_argument|dreaming]] and [[Demon_(thought_experiment)|radical deception]]. [[David Hume]] has also been described as a global skeptic. However, Descartes was not ostensibly a skeptic and developed his theory of an absolute certainty to disprove other skeptics who argued that there is no certainty.
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===Scientific skepticism as Inertia===
  
   
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==See also==
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Scientific skepticism is both useful to, and required by scientists. As many new scientific papers contain material errors that render their conclusions incorrect{{ref|wrong}}, uncritical acceptance of all new discoveries would quickly bog down scientific progress. The bias against new ideas and unusual inventions tends to quickly weed out the hoaxes and experimental flukes. While such a cautious approach towards new ideas may mean that some ideas are initially dismissed, independent corroboration is rarely difficult for legitimate discoveries. Controversy is common among scientists when new [[hypotheses]] are first presented, until [[reproducibility]] can ensure that experimental results can be repeated according to the [[scientific method]]. As a consequence, many scientists reject all new discoveries until the results have been independently confirmed. This may seem extreme, but in addition to honest mistakes in experimentation or statistical analysis, there are also charlatans who seek to profit from the momentary fame of a false discovery.
  
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* [[Critical thinking]]
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* [[Doubt]]
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* [[Scientific skepticism]]
   
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In January 1905, more than a year after [[Wright Brothers|Wilbur and Orville Wright]] had flown their historic first flight at [[Kitty Hawk]] on [[December 17]] [[1903]], [[Scientific American]] magazine carried an article doubting "alleged" flights that the Wrights claimed to have made. With sombre authority, the magazine cited as its main reasons for doubting the Wrights the fact that they had not invited the American press to cover the alleged flights, that they refused to disclose the details of their flying machines, and that they were unwilling to repeat the demonstration for verification purposes. Critics of skeptics like to point to this as an example of how scientists slow down the acceptance of new inventions, however the Wright Brothers were intentionally keeping their inventions secret until they could achieve fully controlled flight, mostly to keep their competitors from appropriating their inventions.
 
   
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==Notes==
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Most revolutionary modern day inventions, such as the [[scanning tunneling microscope]], invented in 1981, are subject to intense skepticism and even ridicule when they are first announced. However, those inventions which can survive the gauntlet of disbelief are just as quickly accepted. For example, less than a year after being laughed off a stage in Australia during a presentation on their new microscope, [[Gerd Binnig]] and [[Heinrich Rohrer]] won the [[Nobel Prize]] in physics.
  
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{{Reflist}}
   
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==Quotations==
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==Sources==
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* ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'', [[Henry George Liddell]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]], revised and augmented throughout by Sir [[Henry Stuart Jones]], with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, [[Clarendon Press]], Oxford, UK, 1940. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057 Online], perseus.tufts.edu.
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*[[Richard Hönigswald]], ''Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft'', 1914, new edition (ed. and introduction by Christian Benne and Thomas Schirren), Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 2008, ISBN 978-7675-3056-0
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* Keeton, Morris T., "skepticism", pp.&nbsp;277–278 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
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* Runes, D.D. (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
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* ''Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged'', W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
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* [[Panayot Butchvarov|Butchvarov, Panayot]], ''Skepticism About the External World'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1998).
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* {{Citation
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|last= Daniels, M.D. |first= D.
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|last2= Price, PhD |first2= V.
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|title= The Essential Enneagram
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| place = New York
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| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]
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| year = 2000}}
   
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==Further reading==
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=== Religious and Scientific skepticism ===
  
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(The first two quotes are often erroneously attributed to [[Carl Sagan]].)
  
   
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* [[Sextus Empiricus]], ''Outlines of [[Pyrrho]]nism'', R.G. Bury (trans.), [[Prometheus Books]], Buffalo, NY, 1990.
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:"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof." - [[Marcello Truzzi]]
 
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* Richard Wilson, ''Don't Get Fooled Again - The skeptic's guide to life'', Icon Books, London, 2008. ISBN 978-184831014-8
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:"Keeping an open mind is a virtue—but not so open that your brains fall out." - [[James Oberg]]
  
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:"A wise skepticism is the first attribute of a good critic." - [[James Russell Lowell]]
  
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:"I think therefore I am." - [[ Rene Descartes]]
  
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==Famous skeptics==
  
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===Philosophical skeptics===
  
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*[[Sextus Empiricus]]
  
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*[[David Hume]]
  
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===Scientific skeptics===
  
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*[[Isaac Asimov]]
  
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*[[Stephen Barrett]]
  
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*[[Martin Gardner]]
  
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*[[Harry Houdini]]
  
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*[[Philip J. Klass]]
  
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*[[James Randi]]
  
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*[[Carl Sagan]]
  
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*[[Michael Shermer]]
  
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*[[Marcello Truzzi]]
  
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*[http://www.csicop.org/articles/19991214-century/ Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century] - Skeptical Inquirer Magazine
  
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Also see the list at [[Debunker]].
  
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== Essays on famous skeptics ==
  
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* A critique of Gardner, "In the Name of Skepticism: Martin Gardner's Misrepresentations of [[General Semantics]]," by Bruce I. Kodish, appeared in ''General Semantics Bulletin'', Number 71, 2004. The ''Bulletin'' is published by the [[Institute of General Semantics]].
  
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* [[Peter Suber]], [http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/skept.htm ''Classical Skepticism'']. An exposition of [[Pyrrho]]'s skepticism through the writings of [[Sextus Empiricus]].
  
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==Organizations dedicated to skepticism==
  
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*[[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]
  
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*[[The Skeptics Society]]
  
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*[[James Randi Educational Foundation]]
  
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*[[Rationalist International]]
  
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==TV shows and documentaries based upon skepticism==
  
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*''[[MythBusters]]''
  
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*''[[Bullshit!]]''
  
   
 
==External links==
  
==External links==
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{{Wiktionary}}
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* [http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/responding.htm Responding to Skepticism], by Keith DeRose. Introduction to *Skepticism: A Contemporary Reader*, Oxford UP. Describes the main lines of response to philosophical skepticism.
  
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{{Wikiquote}}
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* [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/book1.htm, Skepticism and the Veil of Perception], book about philosophical skepticism & perceptual knowledge.
  
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* {{dmoz|Science/Science_in_Society/Skeptical_Inquiry|Skeptical Inquiry}}
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* [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/defeas.htm The Problem of Defeasible Justification], paper about philosophical skepticism.
  
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* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7915 "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong"], ''[[NewScientist]]'', 30 August 2005
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* [http://www.skepticwiki.org/wiki/index.php/Main_Page SkepticWiki]
  
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* [http://www.generalsemantics.org/gsb/articles/gsb71-kodish-gardner.pdf "In the Name of Skepticism: Martin Gardner's Misrepresentations of General Semantics"], by Bruce I. Kodish, appeared in ''General Semantics Bulletin'', Number 71, 2004.
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* [http://www.skeptic-links.org/ Skeptic Links]
  
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* [http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/skept.htm ''Classical Skepticism''] by [[Peter Suber]]
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* [http://www.randi.org/ James Randi Educational Foundation]
  
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* [http://www.csicop.org/articles/19991214-century/ "Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century"] – ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'' magazine
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* [http://www.skepticality.com/ Skepticality]
  
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* [http://www.tricksterbook.com/ArticlesOnline/CSICOPoverview.htm "CSICOP and the Skeptics"] – critical essay by paranormal believer [[George P. Hansen]]
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* [http://www.skepdic.com Skeptic's Dictionary]
  
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* [http://www3.wooster.edu/geology/FYSW/NonsenseFYS.html "Nonsense (And Why It's So Popular)"] – course syllabus from The [[College of Wooster]].
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* [http://www.skepticreport.com/general/index.htm Skeptic Report]
  
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* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Scepticism}} – A Christian (Catholic) account of scepticism
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* [http://www.csicop.org Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]
  
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* [http://www.rationalistinternational.net Rationalist International]
  
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* [http://www.skeptic.com/ Skeptics Society]
  
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* [http://www.skeptic.de/ Skeptics in Europe]
  
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* [http://www.indianrationalist.org Indian Rationalist Association]
  
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* [http://www.skeptics.ca/ Skeptics Canada]
  
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* [http://www.skeptics.com.au/ Australian Skeptics]
  
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* [http://www.arp-sapc.org/ Spanish Skeptics]
  
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* [http://www.skepticreport.com/tools/debiak.htm In Defense of the Tools of Skepticism]
  
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* [http://www.skepticreport.com/tools/logicfallacies.htm The Logical fallacies]
  
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* [http://www.alternativescience.com/james-randi.htm Million Dollar Challenge... A Fraud?]
  
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* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int20.html The problem of skepticism], explained at the Galilean Library
  
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* [http://l.webring.com/hub?ring=skeptic Skeptic Ring] - Skeptical websites
  
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* [http://www.skeptics.org.uk/ UK-Skeptics]
  
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* [http://www.skepticwiki.org/wiki/ SkepticWiki Skeptic Encyclopedia Project]
  
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* [http://www.skepticfriends.org Skeptic Friends Network]
  
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* [http://skepticklish.blogspot.com Skepticklish]
  
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*[http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/Skepticism.htm "Skepticism," an article at Philosophical Society.com] Short excerpts from encyclopedias, quotes, and bibliographical information.
  
   
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== References ==
  
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[[te:సంశయవాదం]]
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#{{note|wrong}} [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7915 Most scientific papers are probably wrong] - Kurt Kleiner - New Scientist - August 2005
  
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Skepticism (or scepticism) has many definitions, but generally refers to any questioning attitude of knowledge, facts, or opinions/beliefs stated as facts,[1] or doubt regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere.[2] The word may characterise a position on a single matter, as in the case of religious skepticism, which is "doubt concerning basic religious principles (such as immortality, providence, and revelation)",[3] but philosophical skepticism is an overall approach that requires all new information to be well supported by evidence.[4] Skeptics may even doubt the reliability of their own senses.[5] Classical philosophical skepticism derives from the 'Skeptikoi', a school who "asserted nothing".[6] Adherents of Pyrrhonism, for instance, suspend judgment in investigations.[7]

Definition

In ordinary usage, skepticism (US) or scepticism (UK) (Greek: 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to think, to look about, to consider; see also spelling differences) refers to:

  • (a) an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object;
  • (b) the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain; or
  • (c) the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster).

In philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about:

  • (a) an inquiry,
  • (b) a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing,
  • (c) the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
  • (d) the limitations of knowledge,
  • (e) a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment.

Scientific skepticism

Main article: Scientific skepticism

A scientific (or empirical) skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some form of the scientific method.[8] As a result, a number of claims are considered "pseudoscience" if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. Scientific skepticism does not address religious beliefs, since these beliefs are, by definition, outside the realm of systematic, empirical testing/knowledge.

Philosophical skepticism

Main article: Philosophical skepticism

In philosophical skepticism, pyrrhonism is a position that refrains from making truth claims. A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical skepticism, such as academic skepticism, an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible. Empiricism is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical skepticism and nomothetic science; philosophical skepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism."

Philosophical skepticism originated in ancient Greek philosophy.[9] The Greek Sophists of the 5th century BC were for the most part skeptics. Pyrrhonism was a school of skepticism founded by Aenesidemus in the first century BC and recorded by Sextus Empiricus in the late 2nd century or early 3rd century AD. One of its first proponents was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-275 B.C.), who traveled and studied as far as India and propounded the adoption of "practical" skepticism. Subsequently, in the "New Academy" Arcesilaus (c. 315-241 B.C.) and Carneades (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted as uncertain. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of Stoicism, asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of empiricism into the basis for asserting knowledge.

Greek skeptics criticized the Stoics, accusing them of dogmatism. For the skeptics, the logical mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the regress argument, whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity (see the five tropes of Agrippa the Sceptic). In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a circular argument (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics, such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth and could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.

In Islamic philosophy, skepticism was established by Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), known in the West as "Algazel", as part of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Islamic theology, whose method of skepticism shares many similarities with Descartes' method.[10]

René Descartes is credited for developing a global skepticism as a thought experiment in his attempt to find absolute certainty on which to base the foundation of his philosophy. Descartes discussed skeptical arguments from dreaming and radical deception. David Hume has also been described as a global skeptic. However, Descartes was not ostensibly a skeptic and developed his theory of an absolute certainty to disprove other skeptics who argued that there is no certainty.

See also


Notes

  1. ↑ See R. H. Popkin, The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (rev. ed. 1968); C. L. Stough, Greek Skepticism (1969); M. Burnyeat, ed., The Skeptical Tradition (1983); B. Stroud, The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism (1984). Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com
  2. ↑ "Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." URM.edu
  3. ↑ Merriam–Webster
  4. ↑ "Philosophical skepticism should be distinguished from ordinary skepticism, where doubts are raised against certain beliefs or types of beliefs because the evidence for the particular belief or type of belief is weak or lacking..." Skepdic.com
  5. ↑ "...the two most influential forms of skepticism have, arguably, been the radical epistemological skepticism of the classical Pyrrhonian skeptics and the Cartesian form of radical epistemological skepticism" UTM.edu
  6. ↑ Liddell and Scott
  7. ↑ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines Of Pyrrhonism, Translated by R. G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 21
  8. ↑ Skeptoid.com: What is skepticism?
  9. ↑ Scepticism – History of Scepticism
  10. ↑ Najm, Sami M. (July–October 1966), "The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali", Philosophy East and West (Philosophy East and West, Vol. 16, No. 3/4) 16 (3–4): 133–141, doi:10.2307/1397536 

Sources

  • A Greek-English Lexicon, Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones, with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, 1940. Online, perseus.tufts.edu.
  • Richard Hönigswald, Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft, 1914, new edition (ed. and introduction by Christian Benne and Thomas Schirren), Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 2008, ISBN 978-7675-3056-0
  • Keeton, Morris T., "skepticism", pp. 277–278 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
  • Runes, D.D. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
  • Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
  • Butchvarov, Panayot, Skepticism About the External World (Oxford University Press, 1998).
  • Daniels, M.D., D.; Price, PhD, V. (2000), The Essential Enneagram, New York: HarperCollins 

Further reading

  • Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, R.G. Bury (trans.), Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1990.
  • Richard Wilson, Don't Get Fooled Again - The skeptic's guide to life, Icon Books, London, 2008. ISBN 978-184831014-8

External links

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