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{{SocPsy}}
 
{{SocPsy}}
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{{Parenting}}
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A '''single parent''' (or '''lone parent''') is a [[parent]], not living with a [[spouse]] or [[intimate partner]], who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in raising the child or children. They may be [[single fathers]] or [[single mothers]].
   
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A single parent is usually considered the primary caregiver, meaning the parent the children have residency with the majority of the time.<ref name="In Defense of Single-Parent Families">{{cite book|last=Dowd|first=Nancy E.|title=In Defense of Single-Parent Families|year=1997|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|url=http://books.google.com/?id=SkkU480ttLgC&pg=PR11&dq=single+parents+fulfilling+dual+gender+roles#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn= 978-0-8147-1916-9}}</ref> If the parents are separated or divorced, children live with their [[custodial parent]] and have visitation or secondary residence with their [[noncustodial parent]].<ref name="Marriages & Families Changes, Choices and Constraints">{{cite book|last=Benokraitis|first=Nijole|title=Marriages & Families: Changes, Choices and Constraints|year=2012, 2011, 2008|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-205-00673-1|pages=121 and 431}}</ref> In western society in general, following separation, a child will end up with the [[primary caregiver]], usually the mother, and a secondary caregiver, usually the father.<ref name="gingerbread">{{cite web | url = http://www.gingerbread.org.uk/stats |title = Statistics | year = 2010 | publisher = Gingerbread | accessdate = 8 November 2012}}</ref>
A single parent (also '''lone parent''' and '''sole parent''') is a [[parent]] who cares for one or more children without the assistance of another parent in the home. The legal definition of "single parenthood" may vary according to the local laws of different nations or regions.
 
   
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Historically, death of a partner was a major cause of single parenting.<ref name="Single-Parent Families - Demographic Trends">{{cite web|title=Single-Parent Families - Demographic Trends|url=http://family.jrank.org/pages/1574/Single-Parent-Families-Demographic-Trends.html|work=Marriage and Family Encyclopedia|publisher=Net Industries and its Licensors|accessdate=1 October 2011}}</ref> Single parenting can result from [[Legal separation|separation]], death, child abuse/neglect, or [[divorce]] of a couple with children. Custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. This affects children in many ways, and counseling is suggested for them. A mother is typically the [[primary caregiver]] in a single parent family structure as a result of divorce or [[unintended pregnancy|unplanned pregnancy]].
Single parenthood may occur for a variety of reasons. It could be opted for by the parent (as in [[divorce]], [[adoption]], [[artificial insemination]], [[surrogate motherhood]], or [[out of wedlock|extramarital pregnancy]]), or be the result of an unforeseeable occurrence (such as death or abandonment by one parent).
 
   
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[[Fathers]] have been the less common [[primary caregiver]] in the past, presumably due to the father working most of the day resulting in less bonding with the children, or possibly a young child needing to still nurse, or if [[childcare]] was necessary while the father works, the mother would be seen to be better suited while fathers works; but this scenario has shifted in recent years, as many fathers are taking an active parental role as [[Stay-at-home dad]] as more mothers are in the workforce and being the sole provider to the family, resulting in fathers bonding and connecting more to their children.
The living and parenting arrangements of single parents are diverse. A number live in households with family or other adults. When parents separate, one party usually parents for the majority of the time but most continue to share parenting to some extent with the other parent<ref>Callister, Paul and Burks, Stuart (2006) [http://www.nzfamilies.org.nz/files/blueskies-callister.pdf "Two Parents, Two Households: New Zealand data collection, language and complex parenting"] Family Commission (accessed February, 18 2008)</ref>.
 
   
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Single parent [[adoption]] is sometimes an option for adults who want children but do not have a partner.
Single parenthood is a stage of life rather than a lifelong family form<ref name="millar"/>. Many re-partner and form a [[stepfamily]].
 
   
==Demographics==
 
{{cleanup-confusing}}<!-- Why are Australian families listed first. 80% of single-parent families are African-American, representing ..% of the population; ..% are white, or approximately ... -->
 
Most single parents are female. In the past few years there are more men heading single parent families. <ref>[http://aspe.dhhs.gov/hsp/connections-charts04/ch1.htm Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, US Department of Health and Human Services] - Indicators of Child, Family, and Community Connections: Family Structure</ref> 2 million households in the US are headed by unmarried fathers.<ref name=nytimes/>
 
   
 
==Demographics==
In 2003, 14% of all [[Australia]]n households were single-parent families. Since 2001, 31% of babies born in Australia were born to unmarried mothers.<ref name=PB>[http://www.pobronson.com/factbook/pages/43.html "Single Parents"] PoBronson.com (accessed October 9, 2006)</ref> (Many of these mothers may not be single parents, as they may simply live with their supportive partners without getting formally married.)
 
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{{Main|Demographics of single parenthood around the world}}
   
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==Debates==
In the [[United Kingdom]], there are 5.9 million single parents as of 2005, with 3.1 million children.<ref name=OPF2>As of 2004. [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=1163 Office for National Statistics] - Focus on Families</ref> About 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families. According to a survey done by the United Kingdom, 9% of single parents in the UK are fathers,<ref name=OPF4>As of 2004. [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=14049 Labour Force Survey] - Focus on Families; see table 1.2</ref> <ref name=OPF7>"One Parent Families Today: The Facts" (2005), One Parent Families, London</ref><ref name=OPF1>Labour Market Review (2006), Office for National Statistics</ref><ref name=OPF3>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/GHS05/ households2005-final.xls2005 Office for National Statistics] - General Household Survey; see table 3.6</ref> UK poverty figures show that 47% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line (after housing costs).<ref>2005/06 [http://www.dwp.gov.uk/asd/hbai/hbai2006/contents.asp Department for Work and Pensions]</ref>
 
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There is some debate among experts as to what the important component of the family structure is, centering around whether or not a complete family or the love and affection of the children's parents is more important. There are even some that argue that a single parent family is not even really a family.<ref name="University of Maryland, College Park">{{cite web|first=Stacey | last = Snowdon|title=DIVORCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON CHILDREN|url=http://www.wright-house.com/ac/papers97/Snowdon-ac1.html| year = 1997 | publisher = Advocates for Children program, College Park Scholars, University of Maryland | accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref> With respect to this, recent public policy debates have centered around whether or not government should give aid to single parent households, which some believe will reduce poverty and improve their situation, or instead focus on wider issues like protecting employment.<ref name="Single Parents">{{cite web|title=About Single Parent | date = April 23, 2011 | url=http://www.singleparenting34.com/about/ | publisher = Single Parenting | accessdate = 8 November 2012}}</ref> Another issue is juvenile delinquency, specifically whether or not it is more prevalent in single parent households; if children do not live with the parent that is the same sex as them, they may not have anyone to model appropriate behavior.<ref name="University of Maryland, College Park"/> In addition, there is a debate on the behavioral effects of children with incarcerated parents, and how losing one or both parents to incarceration affects their academic performance and social well-being with others.<ref name="Children of Incarcerated Parents">{{cite web|last=Reed|first=Diane and Edward|title=Children of Incarcerated Parents|url=http://www.parentsinaction.net/english/Prison/Children%20of%20Incarcerated%20Parents.htm|work=Social Justice, Fall 1997 v24 n3 p152(18).|accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref>
   
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A variety of viewpoints exist and the debate is complicated by different interpretations of available research. The Institute for the Study of Civil Society reports that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems. It is encouraged that each parent respect the other, at least in the child's presence, and provide [[child support]] for the [[primary caregiver]], when parents are not married or separated.<ref name="Single Parents"/><ref name="Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences">{{cite web|last=Eagan|first=Cristina|title=Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences|url=http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/eagan.html|publisher=Rochester Institute of Technology|accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref> The civil behavior among separated parents has a direct effect on how child copes with their situation; this is especially seen in younger children who do not yet understand their familial separation, requiring both parents to establish a limited friendship to support the upbringing of their child.<ref name="Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences"/>
==Effects==
 
{{See also|Implications of divorce}}
 
Single parent families are at a higher risk of poverty than couple families, and on average single mothers have poorer health than couple mothers <ref name="millar">Millar, Jane and Ridge, Tess (2001)[http://www.dwp.gov.uk/asd/asd5/153summ.asp "Families, Poverty, Work and Care: A review of literature on lone parents and low income couple families"] (DWP Research Report No.153)</ref>.
 
   
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==Primary caregiver==
Single parenting is strongly associated with an increased risk of a number of negative social, behavioral and emotional outcomes for children. However while the association is strong, on balance the effect size and the actual numbers affected are modest. Most children from single parent families do well. Many factors influence how children develop in single-parent families: the parent's age, education level, and occupation; the family's income, and the family's support network of friends and extended family members (including the non-resident parent, if available). Disadvantages in these factors that often accompany single parenting appear to cause most of this association rather than single parenting itself <ref>Rickard, Maurice [http://www.aph.gov.au/LIBRARY/Pubs/RN/2001-02/02rn41.htm "Children of Lesbian and Single Women Parents"] Research Note no. 41 2001-02, Social Policy Group, Parliament of Australia (accessed February, 18 2008)</ref> <ref name="mackay">Mackay, Ross (2005) [http://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/publications/msd/journal/issue24/24-pages111-133.pdf "The impact of family structure and family change on child outcomes: a personal reading of the research literature"]Social Policy Journal of New Zealand (accessed February, 18 2008)</ref>.
 
   
 
===Mother===
Shocking headlines do get published; for example a 2003 [[Sweden|Swedish]] study, stated that those living with a single parent were about three times more likely to either kill themselves or end up in the hospital after an attempted suicide by the age of 26 than children living with two parents, however this only happened to 2.2 percent of girls and 1 percent of boys <ref>''The Lancet'', January 25, paraphrased by [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/02/04/health/main539283.shtml CBS News' Emma Ross], "Single-Parent Kids More At Risk"</ref>. While such a finding is concerning, clearly the vast majority of the children of single parents do not kill themselves.
 
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{{Main|Single mothers}}
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[[File:Gilman-Mother-and-Child.jpg|thumb|left|[[Harold Gilman]]'s ''Mother and Child'', painted in 1918, depicts the traditional bond between a mother and child from early on in life.]]
   
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In the United States, 72.6% of single parents are mothers.<ref name="SMG">{{citation | url = http://singlemotherguide.com/single-mother-statistics/ | title = Single Mother Statistics | date= October 13, 2012 | author = Susan | publisher = Single Mother Guide}}</ref><ref>{{citation | url = http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2011.html | title = America’s Families and Living Arrangements: 2011 – Table FG10. Family Groups: 2011 | publisher = United States Census Bureau | accessdate = 8 November 2012}}</ref> Among this percentage of single mothers: 45% of single mothers are currently divorced or separated, 1.7% are widowed, 34% of single mothers never have been married.<ref name="Single-Parent Families - Demographic Trends"/><ref name="Single Parent Center">{{cite web|title=What Do Single Parent Statistics Tell Us?|url=http://www.singleparentcenter.net/single-parent-statistics.html| publisher = Single Parent Center| date = 3 August 2011|accessdate=7 December 2011}}</ref>
A variety of viewpoints do exist, with different readings of the research possible. The Institute for the Study of Civil Society reports that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems <ref>[http://www.civitas.org.uk/pubs/experiments.php Experiments in Living: The Fatherless Family<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. There are impacts of sole parenting on children, however the weight of the evidence does not appear to support a view that sole parents are a major cause of societal ills and are doing irreparable damage to their children <ref name="mackay" />.
 
   
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The prevalence of single mothers as [[primary caregiver]] is a part of traditional parenting trends between mothers and fathers. In her work ''Marriages & Families'' Nijole V. Benokraitis, Ph.D. in sociology and conducted research with marriage and family and gender roles,<ref name="Benokraitis' credibility">{{cite web|last=Benokraitis|first=Nijole V. | title= Background | url= http://www.allmysoc.com/|accessdate=7 December 2011}}</ref> defines mothers as the expressive role players, who provide the emotional support and nurturing that sustain the family unit. Because of this, she argues, mothers outshine fathers who tend to be stricter and more distant. She goes on to express that one of a woman's expressive roles is that of kin-keeper, an important communication link among family members. Children tend to drift towards preference of parent depending on how involved a particular parent is, and a common problem in society today are absentee fathers; therefore, children are more likely to show preference for their mothers, as they are more involved with them than the fathers.<ref name="Marriages & Families Changes, Choices and Constraints" />
===Maturity===
 
Children of single parents are very likely to share more household responsibilities, including looking after themselves. Single parents often discuss things with their children (usually financial or family decisions) which, in other families, are usually discussed only between parents.
 
   
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Cultural definition of a mother's role also contribute to the preference of mother as primary caregiver. Children will lean more towards mothers because of their protective, nurturing characteristics, from a long established mother-child relationship from early on [[Attachment theory|attachment]] beginning at birth and continuing as the child grows up.<ref name="The Child's Preference for Father or Mother">{{cite journal |last=Nimkoff|first=Meyer F.|title = The Child's Preference for Father or Mother | journal =American Sociological Review|year=1942|publisher=American Sociological Association|pages=517–524|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2085047}}</ref> In addition to their traditional protective and nurturing role, single mothers have to play the role of family provider as well; since men are the [[wikt:breadwinner|breadwinner]]s of the traditional family, in the absence of the father the mother must fulfill this role whilst also providing adequate parentage. Because of this dual role, in the United States, 80% of single mothers are employed of which 50% are full-time workers and 30% are part-time.<ref name="Single Parent Center" /> Many employed single mothers rely on childcare facilities to care for their children while they are away at work. Linked to the rising prevalence of single parenting is the increasing quality of healthcare, and there have been findings of positive developmental effects with modern childcare. It's not uncommon that the mother will become actively involved with the childcare program as to compensate for leaving her children under the care of others.<ref name="In Defense of Single-Parent Families" /><ref name="Working Mothers">{{cite book|chapter =Working Mothers | url= http://www.aap.org/publiced/bk0_workingmothers.htm|title =Caring for Your Baby and Young Child: Birth to Age 5|publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics|year = 2004| accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> Working single mothers may also rely on the help from [[fictive kinship|fictive kin]], who provide for the children while the mother is at her job.<ref name="Marriages & Families Changes, Choices and Constraints" />
=== Assistance and help ===
 
A common way for single parents to seek and receive help is over the Internet by conversing with other single parents in similar situations. There are various websites available, offering discussion forums and helpful advice to those parents who find themselves alone. Other websites help by offering single parents to support each other while also providing highly useful links to various solicitors, counselors and financial advisers in any area of the UK.[http://www.onlydads.org Only Dads] and [http://www.onlymums.org Only Mums] are examples of such websites, with [http://www.singlewithkids.co.uk link SingleWithKids]offering not only support and advice, but also a large range of activities and events exclusively for single parent families.
 
   
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In the United States, 27% of single mothers live below the [[poverty line]],<ref name="Single Parent Center" /> as they lack the financial resources to support their children when the birth father is unresponsive. Although the public is sympathetic with low-wage single mothers, government benefits are fairly low. Many seek assistance through living with another adult, perhaps a relative, [[fictive kinship|fictive kin]], or [[significant other]], and divorced mothers who re-marry have fewer financial struggles than unmarried single mothers, who cannot work for longer periods of time without shirking their child-caring responsibilities. Unmarried mothers are thus more likely to [[cohabitation|cohabit]] with another adult.<ref name="The Uneven Spread of Single-Parent Families">{{cite book|last=Neckerman|first=Kathryn M.|title=Social Inequality|year=2004|publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|location=New York, NY|pages=8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ejzK-DLpz9gC&pg=PA3&dq=Demographics+of+Single+Parent#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0-87154-621-0}}</ref>
Many western countries have national or local organizations that offer support specifically for single parents and/or lobby the government on their behalf {{Fact|date=March 2008}}.One such organization is Unexpected Friends, a comprehensive and support center based in Middle Tennessee. Unexpected Friends is a 501(c)3, non-profit organization that reaches out to '''''working''''' single parents and their families.
 
   
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===Father===
Unexpected Friends holds weekly Single Parent Support Group meetings where an appointed facilatator leads the discussion relating to issues faced by single parents. During the discussions solutions are sought, encouragement given, and a great sense of community develops through these weekly meetings.
 
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{{Main|Single fathers}}
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In the United States today, there are nearly 13.6 million single parents raising over 21 million children.<ref name="Single Parent Magazine:Single Parent Statistics">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Statistics|url=http://www.singleparentmagazine.net/single-parent-statistics/ |publisher = Single Parent Magazine |date = 6 June 2011 | accessdate= 11/13/2011}}</ref> Single fathers are far less common than single mothers, constituting 16% of single-parent families.<ref name="Single-Parent Families">{{cite web|title=Single-Parent Families - Single Fathers Compared to Single Mothers|url=http://social.jrank.org/pages/581/Single-Parent-Families-Single-Fathers-Compared-Single-Mothers.html|publisher=Net Industries and its Licensors|accessdate=10/18/2011}}</ref> According to ''Single Parent Magazine'', the number of single fathers has increased by 60% in the last ten years, and is one of the fastest growing family situations in the United States.<ref name="Single Parent Magazine:Single Parent Statistics"/> 60% of single fathers are divorced, by far the most common cause of this family situation. In addition, there is an increasing trend of men having children through [[Surrogacy|surrogate mother]]s and raising them alone.<ref>http://www.npr.org/2012/06/19/154860588/single-dads-by-choice-more-men-going-it-alone</ref> While fathers are not normally seen as primary caregivers, statistics show that 90% of single-fathers are employed, and 72% have a full-time job.<ref name="Single Parent Center"/>
   
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"Father" has been variously defined throughout history as provider, dad, and even sire,<ref name="Dictionary.com">{{cite web|title=father | publisher = Dictionary.com | url= http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/father|work=Website|accessdate=11/13/2011}}</ref> carrying connotations of being demanding, disciplinary, and even cruel; yet, as the writer [[Armstrong Williams]] remarks in the article "The Definition of Father," "...every father must take the time to be a dad as well as a friend, disciplinarian, shoulder to cry on, dance partner, coach, audience, adviser, listener, and so much more." Williams, the writer quoted above, goes on to say that he viewed his father as the driving force in his family and also someone who brought strength and compassion to his family.<ref name="The Definition of Father">{{cite web|title=The Definition of Father | url= http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/6/15/110007.shtml | first = Armstrong | last = Williams | date = June 15, 2007 | publisher=NewsMax.com|accessdate=11/13/2011}}</ref> In addition to these qualities, the single father must take on the role of the mother, are role that extends deep into morality, devotion, and the ability to set up an educational yet nurturing environment.<ref name="What is the Role of the Mother in a Typical American Family?">{{cite web|title=Livestrong.com|url=http://www.livestrong.com/article/70779-role-mother-typical-american-family|publisher=Demand Media, Inc.|date = 5 January 2010 | first=Julie | last = Boehlke | accessdate=11/13/2011}}</ref> Thus it is the father's role to be a source of both resilience and strength, and love and compassion.<ref name="The Definition of Father"/>
Unexpected Friends also outreaches to the church community to assist the churches in establishing a Single Parent Ministry within the church and trains and equipts volunteers from the church, who have a heart and burden for single parents, to operate the Single Parent Ministry and trains volunteers to facilatate the Single Parent Support Group Meetings.
 
   
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Little research has been done to suggest the hardships of the "single father as a caretaker" relationship; however, a great deal has been done on the hardships of a single-parent household. Single-parent households tend to find difficulty with the lack of help they receive. More often than not a single parent finds it difficult to find help because there is a lack of support, whether it be a second parent or other family members. This tends to put a strain on not only the parent but also the relationship between the parent and their child. Furthermore, dependency is a hardship that many parents find difficult to overcome. As the single parent becomes closer to their child, the child grows more and more dependent upon that parent. This dependency, while common, may reach far past childhood, damaging the child due to their lack of independence from their parent. "Social isolation of single parents might be a stress factor that they transmit to children. Another explanation may be that the parents do not have the time needed to support and supervise their children. This can have a negative impact on the child."<ref name="Children in Single Parent Homes and Emotional Problems">{{cite news|title = Children in Single Parent Homes and Emotional Problems |first = Erica |last = Williams | date = February 6, 2003 | newspaper=The Hilltop|url=http://www.thehilltoponline.com/2.4839/children-in-single-parent-homes-and-emotional-problems-1.472758|publisher=Howard University|accessdate=11/14/2011}}</ref>
Some of the programs put into place for the church's Single Parent Ministry include Car Care Clinics, Marital Mentoring, Surrogate Grandparents program, Holiday Friends Program, Budget & Financial Counseling, Absent Parent Surrogates, SPEAK TRUTH of God's Word(Sexual Purity Ends At Kisses-Taking Relationships Under The Headship of God's Word)- which is a commitment program of remaining sexual pure unless and until married again, as God's Word dictates. These are just a few of the offerings of Unexpected Friends. For more information about Unexpected Friends or to host a Volunteer Training session at your church email sharon.unexpectedfriends@yahoo.com
 
   
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Just as above, it has been found that little 'specific' research to the positives of the father as a single parent has been done; however, there are various proven pros that accompany single parenting. One proven statistic about single fathers includes a that a single father tends to use more positive parenting techniques than a married father. As far as non-specific pros, a strong bond tends to be formed between parent and child in single-parenting situations, allowing for an increase in maturity and a closeness in the household. Gender roles are also less likely to be enforced in a single parent home because the work and chores are more likely to be shared among all individuals rather than specifically a male or female.<ref name="Single Parenting">{{cite web|title=Better Health Channel|url=http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/single_parenting?open|work=Online Article|publisher=State Government of Victoria|accessdate=2 December 2011}}</ref>
==Choice parent==
 
A choice parent is a parent who voluntarily becomes a single parent to a biologic child from the very beginning, rather than by a later separation from a partner. Sometimes, it also includes becoming a single parent by adoption.<ref name=SMBC/>
 
   
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==Cause of single parenting==
A woman may voluntarily become a choice parent by [[artificial insemination]] with [[sperm donor|donor sperm]]. In many countries, e.g. [[Sweden]] this is prohibited. Swedes, however, may go to [[Denmark]], where it is legal to have an insemination. Women who choose insemination or adoption to become parents are also referred to as "choice moms" or "choice mothers". These women, many of whom are over 35, tend to be educated, career women. Children of this group of single moms are less likely to be at risk of poverty. Several books and internet groups exist to assist women in choosing this path.
 
   
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===Death of a partner===
People who are striving to become single parents may be termed choice mom ''aspirers'' or ''tryers'', while people who are seriously thinking about doing going through the procedure may be termed choice mom ''considerers'' or ''thinkers'' <ref name=SMBC> [http://www.singlemothersbychoice.com Single Mothers By Choice</ref>.
 
   
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[[File:Statue of mother Yasukuni 112135011 bd2aaaa5d3 o.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of a mother at the Yasukuni shrine, dedicated to war widows who raised their children alone.]]
A small but growing number of men also choose to become single parents, and they may be referred to as "choice fathers". It is achieved through [[surrogacy]]. Most of the men are gay, but some are straight. <ref name=nytimes> [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/07/fashion/07single.html?_r=1&em&oref=slogin nytimes: The Bachelor Life Includes a Family] By MIREYA NAVARRO. Published: September 5, 2008 </ref> Notable examples include singer [[Ricky Martin]].<ref name=nytimes/>
 
   
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Historically, death of a partner was a common cause of single parenting. Diseases and [[maternal death]] not infrequently resulted in a [[widower]] or widow responsible for children. At certain times wars might also deprive significant numbers of families of a parent.
==In history and fiction==
 
There have been several famous single parents who were also [[actor]]s, [[vocalists]], and [[politician]]s. [[Murphy Brown]], one famous fictional character in the sitcom of the same name, was a career woman working in a TV news firm. She became pregnant and had a baby in the comedy series' fourth season. The character's decisions became a nation-wide interest when she was referred to by several US [[family values]]-oriented politicians, including then-vice president, [[Dan Quayle]], who openly criticized the show during a 1992 speech in San Francisco. <ref>McQueen, Michael. Quayle's Criticisms Of `Murphy Brown' Send Sparks Flying --- Pregnancy on Sitcom Proves Fertile Ground for Debate Over Values and Abortion. Wall Street Journal. May 21, 1992.</ref>
 
   
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Improvements in sanitation and maternal care have decreased mortality for those of reproductive age, making death a less common cause of single parenting.
Other examples include:
 
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*Porter Ricks in ''[[Flipper (1964 TV series)|Flipper]]''
 
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===Divorce===
*Ellen Miller in ''[[Lassie (TV series)|Lassie]]''
 
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*[[Sheriff Andy Taylor|Andy Taylor]] in ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]''
 
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====Divorce statistics====
*Hester Prynne in ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]''
 
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*[[Danny Tanner]] in ''[[Full House]]''
 
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In 2009, the overall [[divorce rate]] was around 9/1000 in the [[United States]].
*[[Lorelai Gilmore]] in ''[[Gilmore Girls]]''
 
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It was also found that more influence came from the south, with the rates there being about 10.5/1000, as opposed to the north where it was around 7/1000.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|title=The American South has the country's highest divorce rates | url= http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2011/08/25/the-american-south-has-the-countrys-highest-divorce-rates/ | publisher= GlobalPost| accessdate=14 November 2011|date=25 August 2011}}</ref> This resulted in about 1.5% (around 1 million) children living in the house of a recently divorced parent in the same year.<ref name="United States Divorce Rate: 2009 Census Report Reveals Startling Marriage Trends">{{cite news|last=Yen|first=Hope|title=United States Divorce Rate: 2009 Census Report Reveals Startling Marriage Trends|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/25/united-states-divorce-rat_n_935938.html|accessdate=14 November 2011|work=Huffington Post|date=25 August 2011}}</ref> Along with this, it has been shown that for the past 10 years or so, first marriages have a 50% chance of ending in [[divorce]]. And, for other marriages after a first divorce, the chance of another divorce increases. In 2003, a study showed that about 69% of children in American living in a household that was a different structure than the typical [[nuclear family]]. This was broken down into about 30% living with a stepparent, 23% living with a biological mother, 6% with grandparents as caregivers, 4% with a biological father, 4% with someone who was not a direct relative, and a small 1% living with a foster family.<ref name="Divorce Statistics">{{cite web|title=Divorce Statistics|url=http://www.rainbows.org/statistics.html|accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref>
*Atticus Finch in ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird]]''
 
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Around the mid-1990s, there was a significant amount of single parents raising children, with 1.3 million single fathers and 7.6 million single mothers in the United States alone. However, many parents desire, or attempt, to get sole custody, which would make them a single parent, but are unsuccessful in the court process. There are many parents who may single parent, but do so without official custody, further biasing statistics.
  +
  +
====Children and divorce====
 
{{See also|Implications of divorce}}
  +
  +
[[Child custody]] in reference to [[divorce]] refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. [[Physical custody]] refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child’s life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baker|first=A.L.|coauthors=Ben-Ami, N.|title=Adult Recall of Childhood psychological maltreatment in "Adult Children of divorce": Prevalence and associations with concurrent measures of well being|journal=Journal of Divorce & Remarriage|volume=52|issue=4|pages=203–219|doi=10.1080/10502556.2011.556973}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=D.A.|coauthors=Woodside, M.|title=Resilience in adult children of divorce: A multiple case study|journal=Marriage & Family Review|volume=47|issue=4|pages=213–234|doi=10.1080/01494929.2011.586300}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew|title=Public and Private Families|year=2010|publisher=McGraw Hill|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-07-340435-6}}</ref>
  +
  +
Children are affected by divorce in many different ways, varying by the circumstances and age of the child. Young children ages two to six are generally the most fearful of parental separation, and often feel abandoned or confused. Both boys and girls have the same amount of trouble coping, but often show this in different ways. Nonetheless this age group adapts best to their situations, as they are often too young to remember their non-custodial parent vividly. Children ages seven to twelve are much better at expressing emotions and accepting parentage breakage, but often distrust their parents, rely on outside help and support for encouragement, and may manifest social and academic problems. Adolescents cope the worst with divorce; they often struggle most with the change, and may even turn away from their family entirely, dealing with their situation on their own. They often have problems expressing feelings, similar to far younger children, and may have adjustment issues with long-term relationships due to these feelings.<ref>{{cite web|publisher = Psych Page | last=Niolon, PhD|first=Richard|title=Children of Divorce and Adjustment| url= http://www.psychpage.com/family/divorce/childrenadjust.html|accessdate=29 November 2011}}</ref>
  +
  +
There are several things that experts recommend to reduce the impact of a divorce on children. Leaving discussion of conflict to the court only is recommended, and parents still need to work together, regarding decisions and discipline, to give their children the best developmental support. Grounding both parent's in the child's life is also important, It's important to involve both parents equally, even when the child may only be living with one. Communication is key; a parent should never ignore what their child is saying, because they might be saying something that is very important to them.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Major Effects Child Custody Can Have on Children|url=http://child-custody-modification.whocanisue.com/effects-of-custody-on-children/|publisher = WhoCanISue.com|accessdate=29 November 2011}}</ref> Parents need to make sure they communicate with both each other and their children, about the child's everyday life.<ref name="Single Parenting: Co-Parenting after Divorce">{{cite web|title=Single Parenting: Co-Parenting after Divorce | url= http://extension.unh.edu/family/documents/s_share.pdf|format = [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] | publisher = University of New Hampshire, Cooperative Extension |date = April 2002| accessdate=10/25/11}}</ref>
  +
  +
===Unintended pregnancy===
  +
  +
{{main|Unintended pregnancy}}
  +
  +
Some out of wedlock births are intended, but many are unintentional. Where out of wedlock births are accepted by society, they may result in single parenting. A partner may also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. This also may result in a negative impact on the child.<ref name="Negative Impact">{{cite website |url=http://voices.yahoo.com/single-parent-households-does-affect-children-422927.html}}</ref> Where they are not acceptable, they sometimes result in [[forced marriage]], however such marriages fail more often than others.
  +
  +
In the United States, the rate of unintended pregnancy is higher among unmarried couples than among married ones. In 1990, 73% of births to unmarried women were unintended at the time of conception, compared to about 44% of births overall.<ref name=BestIntent>{{cite book |author=Eisenberg, Leon; Brown, Sarah Hart |title=The best intentions: unintended pregnancy and the well-being of children and families |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=1995 |pages= |isbn=0-309-05230-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref><!-- page 2 -->
  +
  +
Mothers with unintended pregnancies, and their children are subject to numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of violence and death, and the children are less likely to succeed in school and are more likely to live in poverty and be involved in crime.<ref name=BestIntent />
  +
  +
===Single parent adoption===
  +
[[File:Doing the best she can.jpg|thumb|right|A single mother and child]]
  +
  +
====History of single parent adoptions====
  +
Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for "normal" families with married men and women. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the [[Child Welfare League of America]] stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Adoptions | url= http://pages.uoregon.edu/adoption/topics/singleparentadoptions.htm| work=The Adoption History Project| publisher= University of Oregon|date = 24 February 2012 | accessdate=9/8/2011}}</ref>
  +
  +
Not much has changed with the adoption process since the 1960s. However, today, many countries only allow women to adopt as a single parent, and many others only allow men to adopt boys.<ref name="Intercountry Adoption">{{cite web|title=Intercountry Adoption | url= http://adoption.state.gov/|publisher = U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs |accessdate=11/12/11}}</ref>
  +
  +
====Considerations====
  +
Single parent adoptions are controversial. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions: Why Not?">{{cite web|last=Cake-Hanson-Cormell | title= Single Parent Adoptions: Why Not?|url= http://www.adopting.org/adoptions/single-parent-adoptions-why-not-2.html |publisher=Adopting.org|year = 2001 | accessdate=9/8/2011}}</ref> In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions: a Longitudinal Study">{{cite journal |title=Single Parent Adoptions: A Longitudinal Study | url= http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740985800050| work=Web | publisher=Elsevier | journal = Children and Youth Services Review|volume = 7 | issue = 4 | year = 1985 | pages = 321–334 | first = Joan F. |last = Shireman | first2= Renny R. |last2 = Johnson|accessdate=9/10/11 | doi = 10.1016/S0190-7409(85)80005-0}}</ref> A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them.<ref name="Single Parent Adoption">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Adoption | url= http://www.adoptionservices.org/adoption_special/adoption_single.htm|publisher=Adoption Services | accessdate=9/8/2011}}</ref> Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.<ref name="Single Parent Adoption: Challenges of Single Adoption">{{cite web|title=Single Parent Adoption: Challenges of Single Adoption|url=http://www.adoptionstogether.org/ResourcesandSupport/SingleParentAdoption.aspx|publisher=Adoptions Together|accessdate=12/01/11}}</ref>
  +
  +
====Single parent adoption in the United States====
  +
Single parent adoption is legal in all 50 states, a relatively recent occurrence as California's [[State Department of Social Welfare]] was the first to permit it in the 1960s. Still, the process is arduous, and even next to impossible through some agencies.<ref name="Single Parent Adoptions: Why Not?" /> Adoption agencies have strict rules about what kinds of people they allow, and most are thorough in checking the adopter's background.<ref name="Singled Out: A Bad Rap for Single Adoptive Parents">{{cite web|title=Singled Out: A Bad Rap for Single Adoptive Parents|url=http://www.adopting.org/adoptions/singled-out-a-bad-rap-for-single-adoptive-parents.html| first = Nancy S |last = Ashe | work=Article | publisher= Adopting.org|accessdate=9/8/2011}}</ref> An estimated 5-10% of all adoptions in the U.S. are by single persons.<ref name="Single Parent Adoption"/>
  +
  +
===Xin con===
  +
Xin con or "asking for a child" was practiced in [[Vietnam]] by women veterans of the [[Vietnam War]] who had passed the customary age of marriage while engaged in the war. They asked men to help them conceive a child. In 1986 legitimacy of children of single mothers in Vietnam was recognized by the Marriage and Family Law.<ref name=NYT021413>{{cite news|title=A Tiny Village Where Women Chose to Be Single Mothers|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/15/world/asia/in-vietnam-some-chose-to-be-single-mothers.html|accessdate=February 15, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 14, 2013|author=Julie Cohn|quote=...they asked men — whom they would never interact with afterward — to help them conceive a child. The practice became known as “xin con,” or “asking for a child,”}}</ref>
   
===Public policy debate===
 
Single parents have often been the focus of public policy debate. The debate has included both practical considerations around the role of government in their support, and moral ones in response to the decline of the traditional family. The moral debate tends to divide between liberal and conservative positions with liberals welcoming or accepting the changes in family structures, while conservatives decry the declines in marriage and the rises in divorce and cohabitation. The policy debate also tends to split along similar lines with fiscal conservatives emphasizing a minimal role for government and an employment focus, while liberals tend to support more government involvement in an attempt to minimize poverty.
 
   
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
  +
*[[Child custody]]
  +
*[[Child visitation]]
  +
*[[Custodial parent]]
  +
*[[Coparenting]]
 
*[[Divorce]]
 
*[[Divorce]]
 
*[[Extramarital pregnancy]] - the social phenomena of children born outside of [[marriage]]
 
*[[Extramarital pregnancy]] - the social phenomena of children born outside of [[marriage]]
 
*[[Family structure]]
 
*[[Family structure]]
  +
*[[Father absecnce]]
  +
*[[Fathers rights]]
 
*[[Illegitimate children]]
 
*[[Illegitimate children]]
*[[Morris Finer#Finer Report on One Parent Families|Morris Finer Report on One Parent Families]]
 
 
*[[Marriage]]
 
*[[Marriage]]
 
*[[Marriage gap]]
 
*[[Marriage gap]]
 
*[[Marital status]]
 
*[[Marital status]]
  +
*[[Mother absence]]
  +
*[[Mothers rights]]
  +
*[[Marital status]]
  +
*[[Mothers]]
 
*[[Never married]]
 
*[[Never married]]
  +
*[[Noncustodial parent]]
 
*[[Parental absence]]
 
*[[Parental absence]]
  +
*[[Parenting coordinator]]
  +
*[[Parenting plan]]
 
*[[Only child]]
 
*[[Only child]]
  +
*[[Shared parenting]]
 
*[[Single fathers]]
 
*[[Single fathers]]
 
*[[Single mothers]]
 
*[[Single mothers]]
 
*[[Single parents]]
 
*[[Single parents]]
  +
*[[Single persons]]
  +
*[[Supervised visitation]]
 
*[[Teenage pregnancy]]
 
*[[Teenage pregnancy]]
 
*[[Unwed mothers]]
 
*[[Unwed mothers]]
Line 86: Line 136:
 
{{reflist}}
 
{{reflist}}
 
<!--Instead these should be referenced in their respective statements:
 
<!--Instead these should be referenced in their respective statements:
  +
  +
==Further reading==
  +
*{{cite book|title=Report of the Committee on One-Parent Families: presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Social Services by command of Her Majesty July 1974, Volume 2|year=1974|publisher=[[Office of Public Sector Information{{!}}HMSO]]|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Report_of_the_Committee_on_One_Parent_Fa.html?id=I-ItAQAAIAAJ}}
 
*Bankston, Carl L. and Caldas, Stephen J., Family Structure, Schoolmates, and Racial Inequalities in School Achievement, Journal of Marriage and the Family 60:3 (1998), 715-723.
 
*Bankston, Carl L. and Caldas, Stephen J., Family Structure, Schoolmates, and Racial Inequalities in School Achievement, Journal of Marriage and the Family 60:3 (1998), 715-723.
 
*Dependent Children: 1 in 4 in lone-parent families," National Statistics Online, National Statistics, United Kingdom (July 7, 2005) . Accessed at: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=1163 on July 17, 2006.
 
*Dependent Children: 1 in 4 in lone-parent families," National Statistics Online, National Statistics, United Kingdom (July 7, 2005) . Accessed at: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=1163 on July 17, 2006.

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Parenting
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Types of parent
Articles concerning parents
Related topics

A single parent (or lone parent) is a parent, not living with a spouse or intimate partner, who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in raising the child or children. They may be single fathers or single mothers.

A single parent is usually considered the primary caregiver, meaning the parent the children have residency with the majority of the time.[1] If the parents are separated or divorced, children live with their custodial parent and have visitation or secondary residence with their noncustodial parent.[2] In western society in general, following separation, a child will end up with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and a secondary caregiver, usually the father.[3]

Historically, death of a partner was a major cause of single parenting.[4] Single parenting can result from separation, death, child abuse/neglect, or divorce of a couple with children. Custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. This affects children in many ways, and counseling is suggested for them. A mother is typically the primary caregiver in a single parent family structure as a result of divorce or unplanned pregnancy.

Fathers have been the less common primary caregiver in the past, presumably due to the father working most of the day resulting in less bonding with the children, or possibly a young child needing to still nurse, or if childcare was necessary while the father works, the mother would be seen to be better suited while fathers works; but this scenario has shifted in recent years, as many fathers are taking an active parental role as Stay-at-home dad as more mothers are in the workforce and being the sole provider to the family, resulting in fathers bonding and connecting more to their children.

Single parent adoption is sometimes an option for adults who want children but do not have a partner.


Demographics

Main article: Demographics of single parenthood around the world

Debates

There is some debate among experts as to what the important component of the family structure is, centering around whether or not a complete family or the love and affection of the children's parents is more important. There are even some that argue that a single parent family is not even really a family.[5] With respect to this, recent public policy debates have centered around whether or not government should give aid to single parent households, which some believe will reduce poverty and improve their situation, or instead focus on wider issues like protecting employment.[6] Another issue is juvenile delinquency, specifically whether or not it is more prevalent in single parent households; if children do not live with the parent that is the same sex as them, they may not have anyone to model appropriate behavior.[5] In addition, there is a debate on the behavioral effects of children with incarcerated parents, and how losing one or both parents to incarceration affects their academic performance and social well-being with others.[7]

A variety of viewpoints exist and the debate is complicated by different interpretations of available research. The Institute for the Study of Civil Society reports that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems. It is encouraged that each parent respect the other, at least in the child's presence, and provide child support for the primary caregiver, when parents are not married or separated.[6][8] The civil behavior among separated parents has a direct effect on how child copes with their situation; this is especially seen in younger children who do not yet understand their familial separation, requiring both parents to establish a limited friendship to support the upbringing of their child.[8]

Primary caregiver

Mother

Main article: Single mothers
File:Gilman-Mother-and-Child.jpg

Harold Gilman's Mother and Child, painted in 1918, depicts the traditional bond between a mother and child from early on in life.

In the United States, 72.6% of single parents are mothers.[9][10] Among this percentage of single mothers: 45% of single mothers are currently divorced or separated, 1.7% are widowed, 34% of single mothers never have been married.[4][11]

The prevalence of single mothers as primary caregiver is a part of traditional parenting trends between mothers and fathers. In her work Marriages & Families Nijole V. Benokraitis, Ph.D. in sociology and conducted research with marriage and family and gender roles,[12] defines mothers as the expressive role players, who provide the emotional support and nurturing that sustain the family unit. Because of this, she argues, mothers outshine fathers who tend to be stricter and more distant. She goes on to express that one of a woman's expressive roles is that of kin-keeper, an important communication link among family members. Children tend to drift towards preference of parent depending on how involved a particular parent is, and a common problem in society today are absentee fathers; therefore, children are more likely to show preference for their mothers, as they are more involved with them than the fathers.[2]

Cultural definition of a mother's role also contribute to the preference of mother as primary caregiver. Children will lean more towards mothers because of their protective, nurturing characteristics, from a long established mother-child relationship from early on attachment beginning at birth and continuing as the child grows up.[13] In addition to their traditional protective and nurturing role, single mothers have to play the role of family provider as well; since men are the breadwinners of the traditional family, in the absence of the father the mother must fulfill this role whilst also providing adequate parentage. Because of this dual role, in the United States, 80% of single mothers are employed of which 50% are full-time workers and 30% are part-time.[11] Many employed single mothers rely on childcare facilities to care for their children while they are away at work. Linked to the rising prevalence of single parenting is the increasing quality of healthcare, and there have been findings of positive developmental effects with modern childcare. It's not uncommon that the mother will become actively involved with the childcare program as to compensate for leaving her children under the care of others.[1][14] Working single mothers may also rely on the help from fictive kin, who provide for the children while the mother is at her job.[2]

In the United States, 27% of single mothers live below the poverty line,[11] as they lack the financial resources to support their children when the birth father is unresponsive. Although the public is sympathetic with low-wage single mothers, government benefits are fairly low. Many seek assistance through living with another adult, perhaps a relative, fictive kin, or significant other, and divorced mothers who re-marry have fewer financial struggles than unmarried single mothers, who cannot work for longer periods of time without shirking their child-caring responsibilities. Unmarried mothers are thus more likely to cohabit with another adult.[15]

Father

Main article: Single fathers

In the United States today, there are nearly 13.6 million single parents raising over 21 million children.[16] Single fathers are far less common than single mothers, constituting 16% of single-parent families.[17] According to Single Parent Magazine, the number of single fathers has increased by 60% in the last ten years, and is one of the fastest growing family situations in the United States.[16] 60% of single fathers are divorced, by far the most common cause of this family situation. In addition, there is an increasing trend of men having children through surrogate mothers and raising them alone.[18] While fathers are not normally seen as primary caregivers, statistics show that 90% of single-fathers are employed, and 72% have a full-time job.[11]

"Father" has been variously defined throughout history as provider, dad, and even sire,[19] carrying connotations of being demanding, disciplinary, and even cruel; yet, as the writer Armstrong Williams remarks in the article "The Definition of Father," "...every father must take the time to be a dad as well as a friend, disciplinarian, shoulder to cry on, dance partner, coach, audience, adviser, listener, and so much more." Williams, the writer quoted above, goes on to say that he viewed his father as the driving force in his family and also someone who brought strength and compassion to his family.[20] In addition to these qualities, the single father must take on the role of the mother, are role that extends deep into morality, devotion, and the ability to set up an educational yet nurturing environment.[21] Thus it is the father's role to be a source of both resilience and strength, and love and compassion.[20]

Little research has been done to suggest the hardships of the "single father as a caretaker" relationship; however, a great deal has been done on the hardships of a single-parent household. Single-parent households tend to find difficulty with the lack of help they receive. More often than not a single parent finds it difficult to find help because there is a lack of support, whether it be a second parent or other family members. This tends to put a strain on not only the parent but also the relationship between the parent and their child. Furthermore, dependency is a hardship that many parents find difficult to overcome. As the single parent becomes closer to their child, the child grows more and more dependent upon that parent. This dependency, while common, may reach far past childhood, damaging the child due to their lack of independence from their parent. "Social isolation of single parents might be a stress factor that they transmit to children. Another explanation may be that the parents do not have the time needed to support and supervise their children. This can have a negative impact on the child."[22]

Just as above, it has been found that little 'specific' research to the positives of the father as a single parent has been done; however, there are various proven pros that accompany single parenting. One proven statistic about single fathers includes a that a single father tends to use more positive parenting techniques than a married father. As far as non-specific pros, a strong bond tends to be formed between parent and child in single-parenting situations, allowing for an increase in maturity and a closeness in the household. Gender roles are also less likely to be enforced in a single parent home because the work and chores are more likely to be shared among all individuals rather than specifically a male or female.[23]

Cause of single parenting

Death of a partner

File:Statue of mother Yasukuni 112135011 bd2aaaa5d3 o.jpg

Statue of a mother at the Yasukuni shrine, dedicated to war widows who raised their children alone.

Historically, death of a partner was a common cause of single parenting. Diseases and maternal death not infrequently resulted in a widower or widow responsible for children. At certain times wars might also deprive significant numbers of families of a parent.

Improvements in sanitation and maternal care have decreased mortality for those of reproductive age, making death a less common cause of single parenting.

Divorce

Divorce statistics

In 2009, the overall divorce rate was around 9/1000 in the United States. It was also found that more influence came from the south, with the rates there being about 10.5/1000, as opposed to the north where it was around 7/1000.[24] This resulted in about 1.5% (around 1 million) children living in the house of a recently divorced parent in the same year.[25] Along with this, it has been shown that for the past 10 years or so, first marriages have a 50% chance of ending in divorce. And, for other marriages after a first divorce, the chance of another divorce increases. In 2003, a study showed that about 69% of children in American living in a household that was a different structure than the typical nuclear family. This was broken down into about 30% living with a stepparent, 23% living with a biological mother, 6% with grandparents as caregivers, 4% with a biological father, 4% with someone who was not a direct relative, and a small 1% living with a foster family.[26]

Around the mid-1990s, there was a significant amount of single parents raising children, with 1.3 million single fathers and 7.6 million single mothers in the United States alone. However, many parents desire, or attempt, to get sole custody, which would make them a single parent, but are unsuccessful in the court process. There are many parents who may single parent, but do so without official custody, further biasing statistics.

Children and divorce

Child custody in reference to divorce refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. Physical custody refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child’s life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.[27][28][29]

Children are affected by divorce in many different ways, varying by the circumstances and age of the child. Young children ages two to six are generally the most fearful of parental separation, and often feel abandoned or confused. Both boys and girls have the same amount of trouble coping, but often show this in different ways. Nonetheless this age group adapts best to their situations, as they are often too young to remember their non-custodial parent vividly. Children ages seven to twelve are much better at expressing emotions and accepting parentage breakage, but often distrust their parents, rely on outside help and support for encouragement, and may manifest social and academic problems. Adolescents cope the worst with divorce; they often struggle most with the change, and may even turn away from their family entirely, dealing with their situation on their own. They often have problems expressing feelings, similar to far younger children, and may have adjustment issues with long-term relationships due to these feelings.[30]

There are several things that experts recommend to reduce the impact of a divorce on children. Leaving discussion of conflict to the court only is recommended, and parents still need to work together, regarding decisions and discipline, to give their children the best developmental support. Grounding both parent's in the child's life is also important, It's important to involve both parents equally, even when the child may only be living with one. Communication is key; a parent should never ignore what their child is saying, because they might be saying something that is very important to them.[31] Parents need to make sure they communicate with both each other and their children, about the child's everyday life.[32]

Unintended pregnancy

Main article: Unintended pregnancy

Some out of wedlock births are intended, but many are unintentional. Where out of wedlock births are accepted by society, they may result in single parenting. A partner may also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. This also may result in a negative impact on the child.[33] Where they are not acceptable, they sometimes result in forced marriage, however such marriages fail more often than others.

In the United States, the rate of unintended pregnancy is higher among unmarried couples than among married ones. In 1990, 73% of births to unmarried women were unintended at the time of conception, compared to about 44% of births overall.[34]

Mothers with unintended pregnancies, and their children are subject to numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of violence and death, and the children are less likely to succeed in school and are more likely to live in poverty and be involved in crime.[34]

Single parent adoption

File:Doing the best she can.jpg

A single mother and child

History of single parent adoptions

Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for "normal" families with married men and women. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the Child Welfare League of America stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.[35]

Not much has changed with the adoption process since the 1960s. However, today, many countries only allow women to adopt as a single parent, and many others only allow men to adopt boys.[36]

Considerations

Single parent adoptions are controversial. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child.[37] In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent.[38] A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them.[39] Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.[40]

Single parent adoption in the United States

Single parent adoption is legal in all 50 states, a relatively recent occurrence as California's State Department of Social Welfare was the first to permit it in the 1960s. Still, the process is arduous, and even next to impossible through some agencies.[37] Adoption agencies have strict rules about what kinds of people they allow, and most are thorough in checking the adopter's background.[41] An estimated 5-10% of all adoptions in the U.S. are by single persons.[39]

Xin con

Xin con or "asking for a child" was practiced in Vietnam by women veterans of the Vietnam War who had passed the customary age of marriage while engaged in the war. They asked men to help them conceive a child. In 1986 legitimacy of children of single mothers in Vietnam was recognized by the Marriage and Family Law.[42]


See also

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 Dowd, Nancy E. (1997). In Defense of Single-Parent Families, New York: New York University Press.
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 Benokraitis, Nijole (2012, 2011, 2008). Marriages & Families: Changes, Choices and Constraints, 121 and 431, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
  3. (2010). Statistics. Gingerbread. URL accessed on 8 November 2012.
  4. 5.0 5.1 Snowdon, Stacey (1997). DIVORCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON CHILDREN. Advocates for Children program, College Park Scholars, University of Maryland. URL accessed on 14 November 2011.
  5. 6.0 6.1 About Single Parent. Single Parenting. URL accessed on 8 November 2012.
  6. Reed, Diane and Edward Children of Incarcerated Parents. Social Justice, Fall 1997 v24 n3 p152(18).. URL accessed on 14 November 2011.
  7. 8.0 8.1 Eagan, Cristina Attachment and Divorce: Family Consequences. Rochester Institute of Technology. URL accessed on 14 November 2011.
  8. Susan (October 13, 2012), Single Mother Statistics, Single Mother Guide, http://singlemotherguide.com/single-mother-statistics/ 
  9. America’s Families and Living Arrangements: 2011 – Table FG10. Family Groups: 2011, United States Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2011.html, retrieved on 8 November 2012 
  10. 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 What Do Single Parent Statistics Tell Us?. Single Parent Center. URL accessed on 7 December 2011.
  11. Benokraitis, Nijole V. Background. URL accessed on 7 December 2011.
  12. Nimkoff, Meyer F. (1942). The Child's Preference for Father or Mother. American Sociological Review: 517–524.
  13. (2004) "Working Mothers" Caring for Your Baby and Young Child: Birth to Age 5, American Academy of Pediatrics. URL accessed 23 October 2011.
  14. Neckerman, Kathryn M. (2004). Social Inequality, 8, New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
  15. 16.0 16.1 Single Parent Statistics. Single Parent Magazine. URL accessed on 11/13/2011.
  16. Single-Parent Families - Single Fathers Compared to Single Mothers. Net Industries and its Licensors. URL accessed on 10/18/2011.
  17. http://www.npr.org/2012/06/19/154860588/single-dads-by-choice-more-men-going-it-alone
  18. father. Website. Dictionary.com. URL accessed on 11/13/2011.
  19. 20.0 20.1 Williams, Armstrong The Definition of Father. NewsMax.com. URL accessed on 11/13/2011.
  20. Boehlke, Julie Livestrong.com. Demand Media, Inc.. URL accessed on 11/13/2011.
  21. includeonly>Williams, Erica. "Children in Single Parent Homes and Emotional Problems", Howard University, February 6, 2003. Retrieved on 11/14/2011.
  22. Better Health Channel. Online Article. State Government of Victoria. URL accessed on 2 December 2011.
  23. includeonly>"The American South has the country's highest divorce rates", GlobalPost, 25 August 2011. Retrieved on 14 November 2011.
  24. Divorce Statistics. URL accessed on 14 November 2011.
  25. Baker, A.L., Ben-Ami, N.. Adult Recall of Childhood psychological maltreatment in "Adult Children of divorce": Prevalence and associations with concurrent measures of well being. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage 52 (4): 203–219.
  26. Thomas, D.A., Woodside, M.. Resilience in adult children of divorce: A multiple case study. Marriage & Family Review 47 (4): 213–234.
  27. Cherlin, Andrew (2010). Public and Private Families, New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
  28. Niolon, PhD, Richard Children of Divorce and Adjustment. Psych Page. URL accessed on 29 November 2011.
  29. Some Major Effects Child Custody Can Have on Children. WhoCanISue.com. URL accessed on 29 November 2011.
  30. Single Parenting: Co-Parenting after Divorce. (PDF) University of New Hampshire, Cooperative Extension. URL accessed on 10/25/11.
  31. Error on call to template:cite web: Parameters url and title must be specified
  32. 34.0 34.1 Eisenberg, Leon; Brown, Sarah Hart (1995). The best intentions: unintended pregnancy and the well-being of children and families, Washington, D.C: National Academy Press.
  33. Single Parent Adoptions. The Adoption History Project. University of Oregon. URL accessed on 9/8/2011.
  34. Intercountry Adoption. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs. URL accessed on 11/12/11.
  35. 37.0 37.1 Cake-Hanson-Cormell (2001). Single Parent Adoptions: Why Not?. Adopting.org. URL accessed on 9/8/2011.
  36. Shireman, Joan F. (1985). Single Parent Adoptions: A Longitudinal Study. Children and Youth Services Review 7 (4): 321–334.
  37. 39.0 39.1 Single Parent Adoption. Adoption Services. URL accessed on 9/8/2011.
  38. Single Parent Adoption: Challenges of Single Adoption. Adoptions Together. URL accessed on 12/01/11.
  39. Ashe, Nancy S Singled Out: A Bad Rap for Single Adoptive Parents. Article. Adopting.org. URL accessed on 9/8/2011.
  40. includeonly>Julie Cohn. "A Tiny Village Where Women Chose to Be Single Mothers", February 14, 2013. Retrieved on February 15, 2013. “...they asked men — whom they would never interact with afterward — to help them conceive a child. The practice became known as “xin con,” or “asking for a child,””

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