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{{BioPsy}}
 
{{BioPsy}}
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{{PsyPerspective}}
 
'''Sexual reproduction''' is characterized by processes that pass a [[Genetic recombination|combination]] of [[Genetics|genetic]] material to [[offspring]], resulting in [[Genetic diversity|diversity]]. The main two processes are: [[meiosis]], involving the halving of the number of [[chromosome]]s; and [[fertilization]], involving the fusion of two [[gamete]]s and the restoration of the original number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the chromosomes of each pair usually [[chromosomal crossover|cross over]] to achieve [[genetic recombination]].
   
  +
The [[evolution of sexual reproduction]] is a major puzzle. The first [[fossil]]ized evidence of sexually reproducing [[organism]]s is from [[eukaryote]]s of the [[Stenian]] period, about 1 to 1.2 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite web | last = Orgel | first = Leslie E. | url = http://proxy.arts.uci.edu/~nideffer/Hawking/early_proto/orgel.html | title = The Origin of Life on the Earth | publisher = Scientific American | accessdate = 2007-01-03 }}</ref> Sexual reproduction is the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms, including almost all [[animal]]s.
'''Sexual reproduction''' is a type of [[reproduction]] that results in increasing [[genetic diversity]] of the [[offspring]]. It is characterized by two processes. The first, [[meiosis]], involves the halving of the number of [[chromosome]]s. The second process, [[fertilization]], leads the fusion of two [[gamete]]s and the restoration of the original number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the chromosomes of each pair usually [[chromosomal crossover|cross over]] to achieve [[genetic recombination]].
 
  +
  +
A major question is why sexual reproduction persists when [[parthenogenesis]] appears in some ways to be a superior form of [[reproduction]]. Contemporary evolutionary thought proposes some explanations. It may be due to selection pressure on the [[clade]] itself—the ability for a population to radiate more rapidly in response to a changing environment through sexual recombination than parthenogenesis allows. Alternatively, sexual reproduction may allow for the [[Muller's ratchet|"ratcheting"]] of evolutionary speed as one clade competes with another for a limited resource.
   
 
[[Image:Sexual cycle.svg|thumb|250px|right|In the first stage of sexual reproduction, "meiosis," the number of chromosomes is reduced from a diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). During "fertilization," haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote and the original number of chromosomes (2n) is restored.]]
The [[evolution of sex]] is a major puzzle in modern [[evolutionary biology]]. The first [[fossil]]ized evidence of sexually reproducing [[organism]]s is from [[eukaryote]]s of the [[Stenian]] period, about 1.2 to 1 billion years before the present time. Sexual reproduction is the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of visible organisms, including almost all [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s. [[Bacterial conjugation]], the transfer of [[DNA]] between two [[Bacterium|bacteria]], is often mistakenly confused with sexual reproduction, because the mechanics are similar.
 
   
  +
==Insects==
[[image:524px-Sex_life_cycle.JPG|thumb|250px|right|In the first stage of sexual reproduction, 'meiosis', the number of chromosomes is reduced from a diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). During 'fertilization', haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote and the original number of chromosomes (2n) is restored.]]
 
  +
[[Image:Beetelsex.jpg|thumb|right|Insects mating on a ''[[liatris]]'' flower head.]]
  +
Insect species make-up more than two-thirds of all [[extant]] animal species, and most insect species use sex for reproduction, though some species are facultatively [[parthenogenetic]]. Many species have [[sexual dimorphism]], while in others the sexes look nearly identical. Typically they have two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ovum, the ovums develop into eggs that have a covering called the [[chorion]], which forms before internal fertilization. Insects have very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing [[spermatophore]] within the female, which stores the sperm until she is ready for egg fertilization. After fertilization, and the formation of a zygote, and varying degrees of development; the eggs are deposited outside the female in many species, or in some, they develop further within the female and live born offspring are produced.
   
 
==Mammals==
==Sexual reproduction of protists and fungi==
 
 
There are three extant kinds of mammals: [[Monotreme]]s, [[Placental]]s and [[Marsupial]]s, all with internal fertilisation. In [[placenta]]l mammals, [[offspring]] are born as juveniles: complete animals with the [[sex organ]]s present although not reproductively functional. After several months or years, the sex organs develop further to maturity and the animal becomes [[Sexual maturity|sexually mature]]. Most female mammals are only [[fertility|fertile]] during certain periods during their [[estrous]] cycle, at which point they are ready to mate. Individual male and female mammals meet and carry out [[copulation]]. For most mammals, males and females exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives.
Many [[protist]]s and [[fungi]] reproduce sexually. Although they are unicellular, at times of reproduction the "father" cell and the "mother" cell combines together. Next, their genetic information combines together into a new formation, and by [[cell division]] the offspring is born.
 
   
  +
===Male===
==Reproduction in plants==
 
{{main|Sexual reproduction of plants}}
 
 
In [[Angiosperm|flowering plants]], a [[stamen]] produces gametes called [[pollen|pollen grains]], which attach to a [[Carpel|pistil]], in which the female gametes (ovules) are located. Here, the female gamete is fertilized and develops into a seed. The ovary, which produced the gamete then grows into a [[fruit]], which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either [[Self-pollination|self-pollinate]] or [[Cross-pollination|cross-pollinate]].
 
 
==Reproduction in [[archosaur]]s (reptiles and birds)==
 
{{sectstub}}
 
Male and female birds and reptiles both have [[cloaca]]e. The female lays [[amniote|amniotic]] eggs, fertilized by the male, in which the young gestate.
 
 
==Reproduction in mammals==
 
In [[Placenta|placental]] mammals, [[offspring]] are born as juveniles: complete animals with the [[sex organ|sex organs]] present although non-functional. After several months or years, the sex organs develop further to maturity and the animal becomes [[Sexual maturity|sexually mature]]. Most female mammals are only [[fertile]] during certain periods and during those times, they are said to be "in heat". At this point, the animal is ready to mate. Individual male and female mammals meet and carry out [[copulation]]. For most mammals, males and females exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives.
 
 
===The mammalian male===
 
 
{{seedetails|Male reproductive system (human)}}
 
{{seedetails|Male reproductive system (human)}}
The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the [[penis]], which is inserted into the female and carries the sperm inside it, and the [[testes]], which produce the sperm. In humans, both of these organs are outside the [[abdominal cavity]], but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals (for instance, in [[Dog|dogs]], the penis is internal except when mating). Having the testes outside the abdomen best facilitates [[Thermoregulation|temperature regulation]] of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive.
+
The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the [[penis]], and the [[testicle|testicles]], the latter of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the [[abdominal cavity]], but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals (for instance, in [[dog]]s, the penis is internal except when mating). Having the testicles outside the abdomen best facilitates [[Thermoregulation|temperature regulation]] of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive.
 
Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of [[sexual maturity]] until death. Prior to [[ejaculation]] the produced sperm are stored in the [[seminal vesicle]], a small gland that is located just behind the bladder.<br />A sperm cell is motile and swims via [[chemotaxis]], using its flagellum to propel itself towards the ovum.
 
Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of [[sexual maturity]] until death. They are motile and swim by [[chemotaxis]].
 
   
===The mammalian female===
+
===Female===
 
{{seedetails|Female reproductive system (human)}}
 
{{seedetails|Female reproductive system (human)}}
The female reproductive system likewise contains two main divisions: the [[vagina]] and [[uterus]], which act as the receptacle for the male's sperm, and the [[Ovary|ovaries]], which produce the female's [[Ovum|ova]]. All of these parts are always internal. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the [[cervix]], while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the [[Fallopian tubes]]. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum (the singular of ova), which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus.
+
The female reproductive system likewise contains two main divisions: the [[vagina]] and [[uterus]], which act as the receptacle for the sperm, and the [[Ovary|ovaries]], which produce the female's [[Ovum|ova]]. All of these parts are always internal. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the [[cervix]], while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the [[Fallopian tube]]s. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus.
   
If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm penetrate and merge with the egg, [[fertilisation|fertilizing]] it. The fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then implants itself in the wall of the uterus, where it begins the processes of [[embryogenesis]] and [[morphogenesis]]. When developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the fetus through the birth canal, which is the vagina.
+
If, in this transit, it meets with [[Spermatozoon|sperm]], the sperm penetrate and merge with the egg, [[fertilization|fertilizing]] it. The fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then [[implantation|implants]] itself in the wall of the uterus, where it begins the processes of [[embryogenesis]] and [[morphogenesis]]. When developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the fetus through the birth canal, which is the vagina.
   
The ova are larger than sperm and are generally all created by birth. They are for the most part stationary, aside from their transit to the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later [[zygote]] and [[embryo]]. Over a regular interval, a process of [[oogenesis]] matures one ovum to be sent down the Fallopian tube attached to its ovary in anticipation of fertilization. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through [[menstruation]] in humans and [[great apes]] and reabsorbed in all other mammals in the [[estrus cycle]].
+
The ova, which are the female sex cells, are much larger than the sperm and are normally formed with in the ovaries of the fetus before its birth. They are mostly fixed in location with in the ovary until their transit to the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later [[zygote]] and [[embryo]]. Over a regular interval, in response to hormonal signals, a process of [[oogenesis]] matures one ovum which is released and sent down the Fallopian tube. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through [[menstrual cycle|menstruation]] in humans and other [[Hominidae|great apes]] and reabsorbed in other mammals in the [[estrus cycle]].
   
 
===Gestation===
 
===Gestation===
{{main articles|[[Mammalian gestation]] and [[Pregnancy]]}}
+
{{main|Pregnancy (mammals)|Pregnancy}}
Gestation, called ''pregnancy'' in humans, is the period of time during which the fetus develops, dividing via [[mitosis]] inside the female. During this time, the fetus receives all of its [[nutrition]] and oxygenated blood from the female, filtered through the [[placenta]], which is attached to the fetus' [[abdomen]] via an [[umbilical cord]]. This drain of [[nutrients]] can be quite taxing on the female, who is required to ingest significantly higher levels of [[calories]]. In addition, certain [[vitamins]] and other nutrients are required in greater quantities than normal, often creating abnormal eating habits. The length of gestation, called the [[gestation period]], varies greatly from species to species; it is 38 weeks in humans, 56-60 in [[giraffes]] and 16 days in [[hamsters]].
+
Gestation, called ''pregnancy'' in humans, is the period of time during which the fetus develops, dividing via [[mitosis]] inside the female. During this time, the fetus receives all of its [[nutrition]] and oxygenated blood from the female, filtered through the [[placenta]], which is attached to the fetus' [[abdomen]] via an [[umbilical cord]]. This drain of [[nutrient]]s can be quite taxing on the female, who is required to ingest slightly higher levels of [[calorie]]s. In addition, certain [[vitamin]]s and other nutrients are required in greater quantities than normal, often creating abnormal eating habits. The length of gestation, called the [[gestation period]], varies greatly from species to species; it is 40 weeks in humans, 56–60 in [[giraffe]]s and 16 days in [[hamster]]s.
   
 
===Birth===
 
===Birth===
Line 45: Line 38:
   
 
===Monotremes===
 
===Monotremes===
[[Monotremes]], only five species of which exist, all from [[Australia]] and [[New Guinea]], lay [[egg (biology)|egg]]s. They have one opening for excretion and reproduction called the [[cloaca]]. They hold the eggs internally for several weeks, providing nutrients, and then lay them and cover them like [[birds]]. After less than two weeks the young hatches and crawls into its mother’s pouch, much like marsupials, where it nurses for several weeks as it grows.
+
[[Monotreme]]s, only five species of which exist, all from [[Australia]] and [[New Guinea]], lay [[egg (biology)|egg]]s. They have one opening for excretion and reproduction called the [[cloaca]]. They hold the eggs internally for several weeks, providing nutrients, and then lay them and cover them like [[bird]]s. After less than two weeks the young hatches and crawls into its mother’s pouch, much like marsupials, where it nurses for several weeks as it grows.
   
 
===Marsupials===
 
===Marsupials===
  +
Marsupials reproductive systems differ markedly from those of placental mammals. Females have two [[vagina]]s, both of which open externally through one orifice but lead to different compartments within the [[uterus]]. Males generally have a two-pronged [[penis]], which corresponds to the females' two vaginae<ref name=DaMR>[http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Discoveries%20about%20Marsupial%20Rep Iowa State University Biology Dept. Discoveries about Marsupial Reproduction Anna King 2001. webpage] (note shows code, html extension omitted)</ref>. The penis is used only for discharging [[semen]] into females, and is separate from the urinary tract.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Both sexes possess a [[cloaca]]<ref name=DaMR/>, which is connected to a urogenital sac used to store waste before expulsion.
[[Marsupials]] reproduce in essentially the same manner, though their young are born at a far earlier stage of development than other mammals. After birth, marsupial [[Joey (marsupial)|joeys]] crawl into their mother’s pouch and attach to a [[teat]], where they receive nourishment and finish developing into self-sufficient animals.
 
  +
  +
The female develops a kind of [[yolk]] sack in her womb which delivers nutrients to the [[embryo]]. Embryos of [[bandicoots]], [[koalas]] and [[wombats]] additionally form [[placenta]]-like organs that connect them to the [[uterus|uterine]] wall, although the placenta-like organs are smaller than in placental mammals and it is not certain that they transfer nutrients from the mother to the embryo.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Peramelidae.html | title=Family Peramelidae (bandicoots and echymiperas)}}</ref>
  +
  +
Pregnancy is very short, typically 4 to 5 weeks. The embryo is born at a very young stage of development, and is usually less than {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long at birth. It has been suggested that the short pregnancy is necessary to reduce the risk that the mother's [[immune system]] will attack the embryo.
  +
  +
The newborn marsupial uses its forelimbs (with relatively strong hands) to climb to a [[nipple]], which is usually in a pouch on the mother's belly. The mother feeds the baby by contracting muscles over her [[mammary glands]], as the baby is too weak to suck. The newborn marsupial's need to use its forelimbs in climbing to the nipple has prevented the forelimbs from evolving into paddles or wings and has therefore prevented the appearance of aquatic or truly flying marsupials (although there are several marsupial [[Flying and gliding animals#Mammals|gliders]]).
  +
  +
==Fish==
  +
The vast majority of fish species lay eggs that are then fertilized by the male,<ref>[http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/bony-fish/reproduction.htm BONY FISHES - Reproduction<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> some species lay their eggs on a substrate like a rock or on plants, while others scatter their eggs and the eggs are fertilized as they drift or sink in the water column.
  +
Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fishes that have live-bearing offspring include the [[Guppy]] and Mollies or ''[[Poecilia]]''. Fishes that give birth to live young can be [[ovoviviparous]], where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or they can be [[viviparous]], where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring. Some fish are [[hermaphrodite]]s, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species.<ref> Orlando EF, Katsu Y, Miyagawa S, Iguchi T. J Mol Endocrinol. 2006 Oct;37(2):353-65. ''Cloning and differential expression of estrogen receptor and aromatase genes in the self-fertilizing hermaphrodite and male mangrove rivulus, Kryptolebias marmoratus.''
  +
Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, North, Ft. Pierce, Florida 34946, USA. eorlando@fau.edu</ref> One fish species does not need sexual reproduction to produce offspring; ''[[Poecilia formosa]]'' can use [[parthenogenesis]] for reproduction, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring.<ref> I. Schlupp, J. Parzefall, J. T. Epplen, M. Schartl
  +
''Limia vittata as host species for the Amazon molly: no evidence for sexual reproduction''
  +
Journal of Fish Biology
  +
Volume 48 Issue 4 Page 792-795, April 1996 (1996)
  +
Journal of Fish Biology 48 (4), 792–795.
  +
doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1996.tb01472.x </ref>
   
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
*[[Bird]]
+
* [[Animal breeding]]
*[[Flowering plants]]
+
* [[Animal mate selection]]
  +
* [[Animal mating behavior]]
*[[Mammals]]
 
  +
* [[Animal sexual receptivity]]
*[[Reproduction]]
 
*[[Reptile]]
+
* [[Birth]]
*[[Sex organ]]
+
* [[Biological reproduction]]
  +
* [[Breeding season]]
  +
* [[Evolution of sexual reproduction]]
  +
* [[Fertility]]
  +
* [[Fertilization]]
  +
* [[Genetics]]
  +
* [[Infertility]]
  +
* [[Mating system]]
  +
* [[Operational sex ratio]]
  +
* [[Pregnancy]]
 
* [[Reproduction]]
  +
* [[Reproductive system]]
  +
* [[Reproductive technology]]
  +
* [[Selective breeding]]
  +
* [[Sterilization]]
  +
* [[Sex]]
  +
* [[Sex organ]]
  +
* [[Sexual intercourse]]
  +
* [[Sperm]]
  +
* [[Third party reproduction]]
  +
  +
==Notes==
  +
{{Reflist}}
   
 
==References==
 
==References==
# Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2003.
+
# Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2004
 
# [http://www.biolreprod.org/ Journal of Biology of Reproduction], accessed in August 2005.
 
# [http://www.biolreprod.org/ Journal of Biology of Reproduction], accessed in August 2005.
   
 
[[Category:Developmental biology]]
 
[[Category:Developmental biology]]
[[Category:Biological reproduction]]
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[[Category:Fertility]]
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[[Category:Physiology]]
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[[Category:Sexual reproduction]]
 
[[Category:Sexuality]]
 
[[Category:Sexuality]]
   
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[[de:Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung]]
 
[[de:Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung]]
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{{enWP|Sexual reproduction}}

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Sexual reproduction is characterized by processes that pass a combination of genetic material to offspring, resulting in diversity. The main two processes are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the restoration of the original number of chromosomes. During meiosis, the chromosomes of each pair usually cross over to achieve genetic recombination.

The evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle. The first fossilized evidence of sexually reproducing organisms is from eukaryotes of the Stenian period, about 1 to 1.2 billion years ago.[1] Sexual reproduction is the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms, including almost all animals.

A major question is why sexual reproduction persists when parthenogenesis appears in some ways to be a superior form of reproduction. Contemporary evolutionary thought proposes some explanations. It may be due to selection pressure on the clade itself—the ability for a population to radiate more rapidly in response to a changing environment through sexual recombination than parthenogenesis allows. Alternatively, sexual reproduction may allow for the "ratcheting" of evolutionary speed as one clade competes with another for a limited resource.

File:Sexual cycle.svg

In the first stage of sexual reproduction, "meiosis," the number of chromosomes is reduced from a diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). During "fertilization," haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote and the original number of chromosomes (2n) is restored.

Insects

File:Beetelsex.jpg

Insects mating on a liatris flower head.

Insect species make-up more than two-thirds of all extant animal species, and most insect species use sex for reproduction, though some species are facultatively parthenogenetic. Many species have sexual dimorphism, while in others the sexes look nearly identical. Typically they have two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ovum, the ovums develop into eggs that have a covering called the chorion, which forms before internal fertilization. Insects have very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing spermatophore within the female, which stores the sperm until she is ready for egg fertilization. After fertilization, and the formation of a zygote, and varying degrees of development; the eggs are deposited outside the female in many species, or in some, they develop further within the female and live born offspring are produced.

Mammals

There are three extant kinds of mammals: Monotremes, Placentals and Marsupials, all with internal fertilisation. In placental mammals, offspring are born as juveniles: complete animals with the sex organs present although not reproductively functional. After several months or years, the sex organs develop further to maturity and the animal becomes sexually mature. Most female mammals are only fertile during certain periods during their estrous cycle, at which point they are ready to mate. Individual male and female mammals meet and carry out copulation. For most mammals, males and females exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives.

Male

For more details on this topic, see Male reproductive system (human).

The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the penis, and the testicles, the latter of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity, but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals (for instance, in dogs, the penis is internal except when mating). Having the testicles outside the abdomen best facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive. Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of sexual maturity until death. Prior to ejaculation the produced sperm are stored in the seminal vesicle, a small gland that is located just behind the bladder.
A sperm cell is motile and swims via chemotaxis, using its flagellum to propel itself towards the ovum.

Female

For more details on this topic, see Female reproductive system (human).

The female reproductive system likewise contains two main divisions: the vagina and uterus, which act as the receptacle for the sperm, and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. All of these parts are always internal. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus.

If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. The fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then implants itself in the wall of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and morphogenesis. When developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the fetus through the birth canal, which is the vagina.

The ova, which are the female sex cells, are much larger than the sperm and are normally formed with in the ovaries of the fetus before its birth. They are mostly fixed in location with in the ovary until their transit to the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later zygote and embryo. Over a regular interval, in response to hormonal signals, a process of oogenesis matures one ovum which is released and sent down the Fallopian tube. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation in humans and other great apes and reabsorbed in other mammals in the estrus cycle.

Gestation

Main article: Pregnancy (mammals)

Gestation, called pregnancy in humans, is the period of time during which the fetus develops, dividing via mitosis inside the female. During this time, the fetus receives all of its nutrition and oxygenated blood from the female, filtered through the placenta, which is attached to the fetus' abdomen via an umbilical cord. This drain of nutrients can be quite taxing on the female, who is required to ingest slightly higher levels of calories. In addition, certain vitamins and other nutrients are required in greater quantities than normal, often creating abnormal eating habits. The length of gestation, called the gestation period, varies greatly from species to species; it is 40 weeks in humans, 56–60 in giraffes and 16 days in hamsters.

Birth

Main article: Childbirth

Once the fetus is sufficiently developed, chemical signals start the process of birth, which begins with contractions of the uterus and the dilation of the cervix. The fetus then descends to the cervix, where it is pushed out into the vagina, and eventually out of the female. The newborn, which is called an infant in humans, should typically begin respiration on its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta is passed as well. Most mammals eat this, as it is a good source of protein and other vital nutrients needed for caring for the young. The end of the umbilical cord attached to the young’s abdomen eventually falls off on its own.

Monotremes

Monotremes, only five species of which exist, all from Australia and New Guinea, lay eggs. They have one opening for excretion and reproduction called the cloaca. They hold the eggs internally for several weeks, providing nutrients, and then lay them and cover them like birds. After less than two weeks the young hatches and crawls into its mother’s pouch, much like marsupials, where it nurses for several weeks as it grows.

Marsupials

Marsupials reproductive systems differ markedly from those of placental mammals. Females have two vaginas, both of which open externally through one orifice but lead to different compartments within the uterus. Males generally have a two-pronged penis, which corresponds to the females' two vaginae[2]. The penis is used only for discharging semen into females, and is separate from the urinary tract.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Both sexes possess a cloaca[2], which is connected to a urogenital sac used to store waste before expulsion.

The female develops a kind of yolk sack in her womb which delivers nutrients to the embryo. Embryos of bandicoots, koalas and wombats additionally form placenta-like organs that connect them to the uterine wall, although the placenta-like organs are smaller than in placental mammals and it is not certain that they transfer nutrients from the mother to the embryo.[3]

Pregnancy is very short, typically 4 to 5 weeks. The embryo is born at a very young stage of development, and is usually less than Template:Convert/cmTemplate:Convert/test/Aon long at birth. It has been suggested that the short pregnancy is necessary to reduce the risk that the mother's immune system will attack the embryo.

The newborn marsupial uses its forelimbs (with relatively strong hands) to climb to a nipple, which is usually in a pouch on the mother's belly. The mother feeds the baby by contracting muscles over her mammary glands, as the baby is too weak to suck. The newborn marsupial's need to use its forelimbs in climbing to the nipple has prevented the forelimbs from evolving into paddles or wings and has therefore prevented the appearance of aquatic or truly flying marsupials (although there are several marsupial gliders).

Fish

The vast majority of fish species lay eggs that are then fertilized by the male,[4] some species lay their eggs on a substrate like a rock or on plants, while others scatter their eggs and the eggs are fertilized as they drift or sink in the water column. Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fishes that have live-bearing offspring include the Guppy and Mollies or Poecilia. Fishes that give birth to live young can be ovoviviparous, where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or they can be viviparous, where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring. Some fish are hermaphrodites, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species.[5] One fish species does not need sexual reproduction to produce offspring; Poecilia formosa can use parthenogenesis for reproduction, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring.[6]

See also

Notes

  1. Orgel, Leslie E. The Origin of Life on the Earth. Scientific American. URL accessed on 2007-01-03.
  2. 2.0 2.1 Iowa State University Biology Dept. Discoveries about Marsupial Reproduction Anna King 2001. webpage (note shows code, html extension omitted)
  3. Family Peramelidae (bandicoots and echymiperas).
  4. BONY FISHES - Reproduction
  5. Orlando EF, Katsu Y, Miyagawa S, Iguchi T. J Mol Endocrinol. 2006 Oct;37(2):353-65. Cloning and differential expression of estrogen receptor and aromatase genes in the self-fertilizing hermaphrodite and male mangrove rivulus, Kryptolebias marmoratus. Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, North, Ft. Pierce, Florida 34946, USA. eorlando@fau.edu
  6. I. Schlupp, J. Parzefall, J. T. Epplen, M. Schartl Limia vittata as host species for the Amazon molly: no evidence for sexual reproduction Journal of Fish Biology Volume 48 Issue 4 Page 792-795, April 1996 (1996) Journal of Fish Biology 48 (4), 792–795. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1996.tb01472.x

References

  1. Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2004
  2. Journal of Biology of Reproduction, accessed in August 2005.
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