Self-medication

Assessment | Biopsychology | Comparative | Cognitive | Developmental | Language | Individual differences | Personality | Philosophy | Social |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |

Clinical: Approaches · Group therapy · Techniques · Types of problem · Areas of specialism · Taxonomies · Therapeutic issues · Modes of delivery · Model translation project · Personal experiences ·

---

This article is in need of attention from a psychologist/academic expert on the subject.
Please help recruit one, or improve this page yourself if you are qualified.
This banner appears on articles that are weak and whose contents should be approached with academic caution.

This article is about the self administration of drugs in humans. For the operant study of self reward in animals see: Self-administration.

Self-medication
Intervention
MeSH	D012651

Self-medication is a human behavior in which an individual uses unprescribed drugs to treat untreated and often undiagnosed medical ailments.

The psychology of such behavior within the specific context of using recreational drugs, psychoactive drugs, alcohol, and other self-soothing forms of behavior to alleviate symptoms of mental distress, stress and anxiety, including mental illnesses and/or psychological trauma, is particularly unique and can serve as a serious detriment to physical and mental health if motivated by addictive mechanisms.

Self-medication is often seen as gaining personal independence from established medicine, and it can be seen as a human right, implicit in, or closely related to the right to refuse professional medical treatment

Definition

Generally speaking, self-medication is defined as "the use of drugs to treat self-diagnosed disorders or symptoms, or the intermittent or continued use of a prescribed drug for chronic or recurrent disease or symptoms"

Psychology and psychiatry

Self-medication hypothesis

As different drugs have different effects, they may be used for different reasons. According to the self-medication hypothesis (SMH), the individuals' choice of a particular drug is not accidental or coincidental, but instead, a result of the individuals' psychological condition, as the drug of choice provides relief to the user specific to his or her condition. Specifically, addiction is hypothesized to function as a compensatory means to modulate effects and treat distressful psychological states, whereby individuals choose the drug that will most appropriately manage their specific type of psychiatric distress and help them achieve emotional stability.

The self-medication hypothesis (SMH) originated in papers by Edward Khantzian, Mack and Schatzberg, David F. Duncan, and a response to Khantzian by Duncan. The SMH initially focused on heroin use, but a follow-up paper added cocaine. The SMH was later expanded to include alcohol, and finally all drugs of addiction.

According to Khantzian's view of addiction, drug users compensate for deficient ego function by using a drug as an "ego solvent", which acts on parts of the self that are cut off from consciousness by defense mechanisms. According to Khantzian, drug dependent individuals generally experience more psychiatric distress than non-drug dependent individuals, and the development of drug dependence involves the gradual incorporation of the drug effects and the need to sustain these effects into the defensive structure-building activity of the ego itself. The addict's choice of drug is a result of the interaction between the psychopharmacologic properties of the drug and the affective states from which the addict was seeking relief. The drug's effects substitute for defective or non-existent ego mechanisms of defense. The addict's drug of choice, therefore, is not random.

While Khantzian takes a psychodynamic approach to self-medication, Duncan's model focuses on behavioral factors. Duncan described the nature of positive reinforcement (e.g., the "high feeling", approval from peers), negative reinforcement (e.g. reduction of negative affect) and avoidance of withdrawal symptoms, all of which are seen in those who develop problematic drug use, but are not all found in all recreational drug users. While earlier behavioral formulations of drug dependence using operant conditioning maintained that positive and negative reinforcement were necessary for drug dependence, Duncan maintained that drug dependence was not maintained by positive reinforcement, but rather by negative reinforcement. Duncan applied a public health model to drug dependence, where the agent (the drug of choice) infects the host (the drug user) through a vector (e.g., peers), while the environment supports the disease process, through stressors and lack of support.

Khantzian revisited the SMH, suggesting there is more evidence that psychiatric symptoms, rather than personality styles, lie at the heart of drug use disorders. Khantzian specified that the two crucial aspects of the SMH were that (1) drugs of abuse produce a relief from psychological suffering and (2) the individual's preference for a particular drug is based on its psychopharmacological properties. The individual's drug of choice is determined through experimentation, whereby the interaction of the main effects of the drug, the individual's inner psychological turmoil, and underlying personality traits identify the drug that produces the desired effects.

Meanwhile, Duncan's work focuses on the difference between recreational and problematic drug use. Data obtained in the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study demonstrated that only 20% of drug users ever experience an episode of drug abuse (Anthony & Helzer, 1991), while data obtained from the National Comorbidity Study demonstrated that only 15% of alcohol users and 15% of illicit drug users ever become dependent. A crucial determinant of whether a drug user develops drug abuse is the presence or absence of negative reinforcement, which is experienced by problematic users, but not by recreational users. According to Duncan, drug dependence is an avoidance behavior, where an individual finds a drug that produces a temporary escape from a problem, and taking the drug is reinforced as an operant behavior.

Specific mechanisms

Some mental illness sufferers attempt to correct their illnesses by use of certain drugs. Depression is often self-medicated with alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, or other mind-altering drug use. While this may provide immediate relief of some symptoms such as anxiety, it may evoke and/or exacerbate some symptoms of several kinds of mental illnesses that are already latently present, and may lead to addiction/dependence, among other side effects of long-term use of the drug.

Sufferers of post-traumatic stress disorder have been known to self-medicate, as well as many individuals without this diagnosis who have suffered from (mental) trauma.

Due to the different effects of the different classes of drugs, the SMH postulates that the appeal of a specific class of drugs differs from person to person. In fact, some drugs may be aversive for individuals for whom the effects could worsen affective deficits.

CNS depressants

Alcohol and sedative/hypnotic drugs, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, are central nervous system (CNS) depressants that lower inhibitions via anxiolysis. Depressants produce feelings of relaxation and sedation, while relieving feelings of depression and anxiety. Though they are generally ineffective antidepressants, as most are short-acting, the rapid onset of alcohol and sedative/hypnotics softens rigid defenses and, in low to moderate doses, provides relief from depressive affect and anxiety. As alcohol also lowers inhibitions, alcohol is also hypothesized to be used by those who normally constrain emotions by attenuating intense emotions in high or obliterating doses, which allows them to express feelings of affection, aggression and closeness. People with social anxiety disorder commonly use these drugs to overcome their highly set inhibitions.

Psychostimulants

Psychostimulants, such as cocaine, amphetamines, methylphenidate, caffeine, and nicotine, produce improvements in physical and mental functioning, including increased energy and feelings of euphoria. Stimulants tend to be used by individuals who experience depression, to reduce anhedonia and increase self-esteem. The SMH also hypothesizes that hyperactive and hypomanic individuals use stimulants to maintain their restlessness and heighten euphoria. Additionally, stimulants are useful to individuals with social anxiety by helping individuals break through their inhibitions.

Opiates

Opiates, such as heroin and morphine, function as an analgesic by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and gastrointestinal tract. This binding reduces the perception of and reaction to pain, while also increasing pain tolerance. Opiates are hypothesized to be used as self-medication for aggression and rage. Opiates are effective anxiolytics, mood-stabilizers, and anti-depressants, however, people tend to self-medicate anxiety and depression with depressants and stimulants respectively, though this is by no means an absolute analysis.

Cannabis

Cannabis is paradoxical in that it simultaneously produces stimulating, sedating and mildly psychedelic properties and both anxiolytic or anxiogenic properties, depending on the individual and circumstances of use. Depressant properties are more obvious in occasional users, and stimulating properties are more common in chronic users. Khantzian noted that research had not sufficiently addressed a theoretical mechanism for cannabis, and therefore did not include it in the SMH. Cannabis is commonly used to self-medicate individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, which has shown to improve symptoms for individuals with ADHD in studies.

Effectiveness

Self medicating excessively for prolonged periods of time with benzodiazepines or alcohol often makes the symptoms of anxiety or depression worse. This is believed to occur as a result of the changes in brain chemistry from long-term use. Of those who seek help from mental health services for conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia, approximately half have alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence issues.

Sometimes anxiety precedes alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence but the alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence acts to keep the anxiety disorders going, often progressively making them worse. However, some people addicted to alcohol or benzodiazepines, when it is explained to them that they have a choice between ongoing poor mental health or quitting and recovering from their symptoms, decide on quitting alcohol or benzodiazepines or both. It has been noted that every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs, and what one person can tolerate without ill health, may cause another to suffer very ill health, and even moderate drinking can cause rebound anxiety syndrome and sleep disorders. A person suffering the toxic effects of alcohol will not benefit from other therapies or medications, as these do not address the root cause of the symptoms.

Infectious disease

Self-medication with antibiotics is commonplace in some countries, such as Greece. Such use is cited as a potential factor in the incidence of certain antibiotic resistant bacterial infections in places like Nigeria.

In a questionnaire designed to evaluate self-medication rates amongst the population of Khartoum, Sudan, 48.1% of respondents reported self-medicating with antibiotics within the past 30 days, 43.4% reported self-medicating with antimalarials, and 17.5% reported self-medicating with both. Overall, the total prevalence of reported self-medication with one or both classes of anti-infective agents within the past month was 73.9%. Furthermore, according to the associated study, data indicated that self-medication "varies significantly with a number of socio-economic characteristics" and the "main reason that was indicated for the self-medication was financial constraints".

Similarly, in a survey of university students in Southern China, 47.8% of respondents reported self-medicating with antibiotics.

Physicians and medical students

In a survey of West Bengal, India undergraduate medical school students, 57% reported self-medicating. The type of drugs most frequently used for self-medication were antibiotics (31%), analgesics (23%), antipyretics (18%), antiulcerics (9%), cough suppressants (8%), multivitamins (6%), and anthelmintics (4%).

Another study indicated that 53% of allopathic physicians in Karnataka, India reported self-administration of antibiotics.

Children

A study of Luo children in western Kenya found that 19% reported engaging in self-treatment with either herbal or pharmaceutical medicine. Proportionally, boys were much more likely to self-medicate using conventional medicine than herbal medicine as compared with girls, a phenomenon which was theorized to be influenced by their relative earning potential.

Regulation

Main article: Regulation of therapeutic goods

Self-medication is highly regulated in much of the world and many classes of drugs are available for administration only upon prescription by licensed medical personnel. Safety, social order, commercialization, and religion have historically been among the prevailing factors that lead to such prohibition.

---

See also

• Biodiversity and drugs
• Comfort food
• Drug self administration
• Drug therapy
• Dual diagnosis
• Placebo effect
• Psychological trauma
• Zoopharmacognosy

Key texts

Books

• Albanese, M. J., & Khantzian, E. J. (2002). Self-medication theory and modified dynamic group therapy. New York, NY: Haworth Press.
• Crawley, B. (1993). Self-medication and the elderly. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
• Harchik, A. E. (1994). Self-medication skills. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes Publishing.
• Weiss, R. D., & Mirin, S. M. (1997). Substance abuse as an attempt at self-medication. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Papers

• Achalu, ED (2002).The self-medication hypothesis: a review of the two major theories and the research evidence. SMH: Recent Developments on the Self-Medication Hypothesis, 1(10), id1. [1]
• Blenkinsopp A, Bradley C (1996). Over the counter drugs: the future for self medication. British Medical Journal, 312, 835.
• Duncan DF (1974a). Reinforcement of drug abuse: Implications for prevention. Clinical Toxicology Bulletin, 4(2), 69.
• Duncan DF (1974b). Drug abuse as a coping mechanism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(6), 724.
• Duncan DF (1975).The acquisition, maintenance and treatment of polydrug dependence: A public health model. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 7(2), 201.
• Hughes CM, McElnay JC, Fleming GF (2001). Benefits and risks of self medication. Drug Safety, 24, 1027
• Khantzian, EJ, Mack JE, Schatzberg AF (1974). Heroin use as an attempt to cope: clinical observations. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(2), 160.
• Khantzian EJ (1985). The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142(11), 1259.
• Khantzian EJ (1990) Self-regulation and self-medication factors in alcoholism and the addictions. similarities and differences. Recent Developments in Alcoholism, 8, 255.
• Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications: Harvard Review of Psychiatry Vol 4(5) Jan-Feb 1997, 231-244.
• Khantzian, E. J. (2003). The Self-Medication Hypothesis Revisited: The Dually Diagnosed Patient: Primary Psychiatry Vol 10(9) Sep 2003, 47-48, 53-54.
• Khantzian, E. J. (2003). Understanding Addictive Vulnerability: An Evolving Psychodynamic Perspective: Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 5-21.
• Khantzian, E. J. (2003). "Understanding Addictive Vulnerability: An Evolving Psychodynamic Perspective": Response to Commentaries: Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 53-56.
• Wazaify M, Shields E, Hughes CM, McElnay JC (2005). Societal perspectives on over-the-counter (OTC) medicines. Family Practice, 22: 170-176.

Additional material

Books

• Blazer, D. G. (2004). Alcohol and Drug Problems. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
• Cheney, C. D. (1996). Medical nonadherence: A behavior analysis. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
• Huffman, M. A., & Wrangham, R. W. (1994). Diversity of medicinal plant use by chimpanzees in the wild. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Rand, C. S., & Weeks, K. (1998). Measuring adherence with medication regimens in clinical care and research. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co.

Papers

• Google Scholar

• Adu-Sarkodie, Y. A. (1997). Antimicrobial self medication in patients attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic: International Journal of STD & AIDS Vol 8(7) Jul 1997, 456-458.
• Aguilar, M. C., Gurpegui, M., Diaz, F. J., & De Leon, J. (2005). Nicotine dependence and symptoms in schizophrenia: Naturalistic study of complex interactions: British Journal of Psychiatry Vol 186(3) Mar 2005, 215-221.
• Aharonovich, E., Nguyen, H. T., & Nunes, E. V. (2001). Anger and depressive states among treatment-seeking drug abusers: Testing the psychopharmacological specificity hypothesis: The American Journal on Addictions Vol 10(4) Fal 2001, 327-334.
• Alao, A. O., Westmoreland, N., & Jindal, S. (2003). Drug addiction in sickle cell disease: Case report: International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine Vol 33(1) 2003, 97-101.
• Ambrosio, E., Martin, S., Garcia-Lecumberri, C., & Crespo, J. A. (1999). The neurobiology of cannabinoid dependence: Sex differences and potential interactions between cannabinoid and opioid systems: Life Sciences Vol 65(6-7) Jul 1999, 687-694.
• Ankri, J., Beaufils, B., Ledisert, D., & Henrard, J. C. (1997). Behaviors toward medicine practiced at home by elderly people with chronic illnesses: Social Science & Medicine Vol 44(3) Feb 1997, 337-345.
• Arendt, M., Rosenberg, R., Fjordback, L., Brandholdt, J., Foldager, L., Sher, L., et al. (2007). Testing the self-medication hyppthesis of depression and aggression in cannabis-dependent subjects: Psychological Medicine Vol 37(7) Jul 2007, 935-945.
• Arikan, Z., Kuruoglu, A. C., & Aslan, S. (2002). Panic Disorder In Alcohol Dependency: A Retrospective Study: Bagimlik Dergisi Vol 3(1) Apr 2002, 9-14.
• Artz, M. B., Harnack, L. J., Duval, S. J., Armstrong, C., Arnett, D. K., & Luepker, R. V. (2006). Use of Nonprescription Medications for Perceived Cardiovascular Health: American Journal of Preventive Medicine Vol 30(1) Jan 2006, 78-81.
• Audrain, J., Lerman, C., Gomez-Caminero, A., Boyd, N. R., & Orleans, C. T. (1998). The role of trait anxiety in nicotine dependence: Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research Vol 3(1) 1998, 29-42.
• Babalola, O. O., & Lamikanra, A. (2007). The response of students to malaria and malaria therapy in a university in southwest Nigeria: Research in Social & Administrative Pharmacy Vol 3(3) Sep 2007, 351-362.
• Bagshaw, R. J., Shaw, L. M., August, T., Young, M. L., & et al. (1993). Unregulated self-medication in an ambulatory surgery population: Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol 64(4) Apr 1993, 324-326.
• Baillod, R. A. (1995). Home dialysis: Lessons in patient education: Patient Education and Counseling Vol 26(1-3) Sep 1995, 17-24.
• Balon, R. (2007). Psychiatrist attitudes toward self-treatment of their own depression: Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics Vol 76(5) Aug 2007, 306-310.
• Barrett, A. J. (2005). Rationalizing risk? The use of non-prescribed substances in severe and enduring mental illness: Journal of Substance Use Vol 10(6) Dec 2005, 341-346.
• Bartlome, J. A. (1992). Analysis of the factors influencing females' intention to self-medicate for vulvovaginal candidiasis: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Bassols, A., Bosch, F., & Banos, J.-E. (2002). How does the general population treat their pain? A survey in Catalonia, Spain: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management Vol 23(4) Apr 2002, 318-328.
• Batel, P. (2000). Addiction and schizophrenia: European Psychiatry Vol 15(2) Mar 2000, 115-122.
• Berner, M. M., Kriston, L., Sitta, P., & Harter, M. (2008). Treatment of depressive symptoms and attitudes towards treatment options in a representative German general population sample: International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice Vol 12(1) Mar 2008, 5-10.
• Berzanskyte, A., Valinteliene, R., Haaijer-Ruskamp, F. M., Gurevicius, R., & Grigoryan, L. (2006). Self-medication with antibiotics in Lithuania: International Journal of Occupational Medicine & Environmental Health Vol 19(4) 2006, 246-253.
• Blume, A. W., Schmaling, K. B., & Marlatt, G. A. (2000). Revisiting the self-medication hypothesis from a behavioral perspective: Cognitive and Behavioral Practice Vol 7(4) Fal 2000, 379-384.
• Bolton, J., Cox, B., Clara, I., & Sareen, J. (2006). Use of Alcohol and Drugs to Self-Medicate Anxiety Disorders in a Nationally Representative Sample: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Vol 194(11) Nov 2006, 818-825.
• Boyer, E. W., Babu, K. M., Adkins, J. E., McCurdy, C. R., & Halpern, J. H. (2008). Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth): Addiction Vol 103(6) Jun 2008, 1048-1050.
• Bradley, C. P., Riaz, A., Tobias, R. S., Kenkre, J. E., & Dassu, D. Y. (1998). Patient attitudes to over-the-counter drugs and possible professional responses to self-medication: Family Practice Vol 15(1) Feb 1998, 44-50.
• Brower, K. J., Aldrich, M. S., Robinson, E. A. R., Zucker, R. A., & Greden, J. F. (2001). Insomnia, self-medication, and relapse to alcoholism: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 158(3) Mar 2001, 399-404.
• Burak, L. J., & Damico, A. (2000). College students' use of widely advertised medications: Journal of American College Health Vol 49(3) Nov 2000, 118-121.
• Bush, D. E. A., DeSousa, N. J., & Vaccarino, F. J. (1999). Self-administration of intravenous amphetamine: Effect of nucleus accumbens CCK-sub(B ) receptor activation on fixed-ratio responding: Psychopharmacology Vol 147(3) Dec 1999, 331-334.
• Butz, A. M., Eggleston, P., Huss, K., Kolodner, K., Vargas, P., & Rand, C. (2001). Children with asthma and nebulizer use: Parental asthma self-care practices and beliefs: Journal of Asthma Vol 38(7) 2001, 565-573.
• Carrai, V., Borgognini-Tarli, S. M., Huffman, M. A., & Bardi, M. (2003). Increase in tannin consumption by sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) females during the birth season: A case for self-medication in prosimians? : Primates Vol 44(1) Jan 2003, 61-66.
• Carrigan, M. H., & Randall, C. L. (2003). Self-medication in social phobia: A review of the alcohol literature: Addictive Behaviors Vol 28(2) Mar 2003, 269-284.
• Castaneda, R. (1994). Empirical assessment of the self-medication hypothesis among dually diagnosed inpatients: Comprehensive Psychiatry Vol 35(3) May-Jun 1994, 180-184.
• Castaneda, R., Galanter, M., & Franco, H. (1989). Self-medication among addicts with primary psychiatric disorders: Comprehensive Psychiatry Vol 30(1) Jan-Feb 1989, 80-83.
• Charupatanapong, N. (1996). Knowledge, perceived risks, and self-medication practices of the low-income elderly: Journal of Geriatric Drug Therapy Vol 11(1) 1996, 17-35.
• Chevrette, J., Stellar, J. R., Hesse, G. W., & Markou, A. (2002). Both the shell of the nucleus accumbens and the central nucleus of the amygdala support amphetamine self-administration in rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 71(3) Mar 2002, 501-507.
• Chutuape, M. A. D., & de Wit, H. (1995). Preferences for ethanol and diazepam in anxious individuals: An evaluation of the self-medication hypothesis: Psychopharmacology Vol 121(1) Sep 1995, 91-103.
• Clary, C., Dever, A., & Schweizer, E. (1992). Psychiatric inpatients' knowledge of medication at hospital discharge: Hospital & Community Psychiatry Vol 43(2) Feb 1992, 140-144.
• Colder, C. R. (2001). Life stress, physiological and subjective indexes of negative emotionality, and coping reasons for drinking: Is there evidence for a self-medication model of alcohol use? : Psychology of Addictive Behaviors Vol 15(3) Sep 2001, 237-245.
• Coleman, S. A., & Davies, J. B. (1993). Alfentanil for extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: Pain Vol 52(3) Mar 1993, 372.
• Colland, V. T., van Essen-Zandvliet, L. E. M., Lans, C., Denteneer, A., Westers, P., & Brackel, H. J. L. (2004). Poor adherence to self-medication instructions in children with asthma and their parents: Patient Education and Counseling Vol 55(3) Dec 2004, 416-421.
• Collingsworth, S., Gould, D., & Wainwright, S. P. (1997). Patient self-administration of medication: A review of the literature: International Journal of Nursing Studies Vol 34(4) Aug 1997, 256-269.
• Coons, S. J., Johnson, M., & Chandler, M. H. (1992). Sources of self-treatment information and use of home remedies and over-the-counter medications among older adults: Journal of Geriatric Drug Therapy Vol 7(1) 1992, 71-82.
• Corrigan, P. W., Wallace, C. J., Schade, M. L., & Green, M. F. (1994). Learning medication self-management skills in schizophrenia: Relationships with cognitive deficits and psychiatric symptoms: Behavior Therapy Vol 25(1) Win 1994, 5-15.
• Cosgrove, K. P., & Carroll, M. E. (2003). Effects of a non-drug reinforcer, saccharin, on oral self-administration of phencyclidine in male and female rhesus monkeys: Psychopharmacology Vol 170(1) Oct 2003, 9-16.
• Covic, T., Tyson, G., Spencer, D., & Howe, G. (2006). Depression in rheumatoid arthritis patients: Demographic, clinical, and psychological predictors: Journal of Psychosomatic Research Vol 60(5) May 2006, 469-476.
• Cox, B. J., Swinson, R. P., Shulman, I. D., Kuch, K., & et al. (1993). Gender effects and alcohol use in panic disorder with agoraphobia: Behaviour Research and Therapy Vol 31(4) May 1993, 413-416.
• Crow, S., Mitchell, J., & Kendall, D. (1997). Levothyroxine abuse and bulimia nervosa: Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation Liaison Psychiatry Vol 38(2) Mar-Apr 1997, 151-153.
• Dallman, M. F., Pecoraro, N. C., & la Fleur, S. E. (2005). Chronic stress and comfort foods: Self-medication and abdominal obesity: Brain, Behavior, and Immunity Vol 19(4) Jul 2005, 275-280.
• Dansak, D. A. (1997). Medical use of recreational drugs by AIDS patients: Journal of Addictive Diseases Vol 16(3) 1997, 25-30.
• Das, V., & Das, R. K. (2006). Urban Health and Pharmaceutical Consumption in Delhi, India: Journal of Biosocial Science Vol 38(1) Jan 2006, 69-82.
• Day, R. A., & Moore, K. N. (1992). Evaluation of a self-medication program: Pilot project: Canadian Journal of Rehabilitation Vol 5(4) Sum 1992, 205-216.
• Dennison, C., Prasad, M., Lloyd, A., Bhattacharyya, S. K., Dhawan, R., & Coyne, K. (2005). The health-related quality of life and economic burden of constipation: PharmacoEconomics Vol 23(5) 2005, 461-476.
• DePaola, L. M., Roberts, M. C., Blaiss, M. S., Frick, P. J., & McNeal, R. E. (1997). Mothers' and children's perceptions of asthma medication: Children's Health Care Vol 26(4) Fal 1997, 265-283.
• DiIorio, C., Hennessy, M., & Manteuffel, B. (1996). Epilepsy self-management: A test of a theoretical model: Nursing Research Vol 45(4) Jul-Aug 1996, 211-217.
• Dinn, W. M., Aycicegi, A., & Harris, C. L. (2004). Cigarette smoking in a student sample: Neurocognitive and clinical correlates: Addictive Behaviors Vol 29(1) Jan 2004, 107-126.
• Dowson, A. J., Warner, J. S., Zupping, R., & Jacquy, J. (2001). Zolmitriptan ("Zomig') provides consistent efficacy: Typical case histories: Headache Quarterly Vol 12(3) 2001, 165-171.
• Dunbar-Jacob, J., Sereika, S., Rohay, J., & Burke, L. E. (1998). Electronic methods in assessing adherence to medical regimens. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Edelberg, H. K., Shallenberger, E., Hausdorff, J. M., & Wei, J. Y. (2000). One-year follow-up of medication management capacity in highly functioning older adults: Journals of Gerontology: Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences Vol 55A(10) Oct 2000, M550-M553.
• Edelberg, H. K., Shallenberger, E., & Wei, J. Y. (1999). Medication management capacity in highly functioning community-living older adults: Detection of early deficits: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society Vol 47(5) May 1999, 592-596.
• Ehrmin, J. T. (2002). "That feeling of not feeling": Numbing the pain for substance-dependent African American women: Qualitative Health Research Vol 12(6) Jul 2002, 780-791.
• Eng, E. L., & Lachenmeyer, J. (1996). Codeine self-medication in a headache patient: Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain Vol 36(7) Jul-Aug 1996, 452-455.
• Englert, S., & Linden, M. (1998). Differences in self-reported sleep complaints in elderly persons living in the community who do or do not take sleep medication: Journal of Clinical Psychiatry Vol 59(3) Mar 1998, 137-144.
• Falvo, D. R., Holland, B., Brenner, J., & Benshoff, J. J. (1990). Medication use practices in the ambulatory elderly: Health Values: Health Behavior, Education & Promotion Vol 14(3) May-Jun 1990, 10-16.
• Fawcett, J. (2005). Alcohol: The world's most powerful drug? : Psychiatric Annals Vol 35(6) Jun 2005, 457.
• Ferrante, F. M., Barber, M. J., Segal, M., Hughes, N. J., & et al. (1995). 0.0625% Bupivacaine with 0.0002% fentanyl via patient-controlled epidural analgesia for pain of labor and delivery: Clinical Journal of Pain Vol 11(2) Jun 1995, 121-126.
• Ferrell, B. R., Nash, C. C., & Warfield, C. (1992). The role of patient-controlled analgesia in the management of cancer pain: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management Vol 7(3) Apr 1992, 149-154.
• Ferruzza, E., Marino, L., Cavallari, R., Boatto, E., & Mercuriali, E. (2007). Transgenerational transmission of psychic trauma and drug addiction: Rivista di Psichiatria Vol 42(5) Sep-Oct 2007, 333-340.
• Flaherty, M. L., Infante, M., Tinsley, J. A., & Black, J. L., III. (2001). Factitious hypertension by pseudoephedrine: Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation Liaison Psychiatry Vol 42(2) Mar-Apr 2001, 150-152.
• Flaskerud, J. H., & Nyamathi, A. M. (1996). Home medication injection among Latina women in Los Angeles: Implications for health education and prevention: AIDS Care Vol 8(1) 1996, 95-102.
• Fluvia, X., Rodriguez, M., Sempere, M. C., & Corominas, N. (1994). Psychodrug consumption in people attending to general practitioner: Revista de Psiquiatria de la Facultad de Medicina de Barcelona Vol 21(2) Mar-Apr 1994, 47-50.
• Fox-Wasylyshyn, S. M., El-Masri, M. M., & Krohn, H. K. (2007). Comparison of coping responses to symptoms between first-time sufferers and those with a previous history of acute myocardial infarction: Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing Vol 22(2) Mar-Apr 2007, 145-151.
• Frances, R. J. (1997). The wrath of grapes versus the self-medication hypothesis: Harvard Review of Psychiatry Vol 4(5) Jan-Feb 1997, 287-289.
• Franco, J. A. (2000). Self-medication and alternative therapies: Acta Psiquiatrica y Psicologica de America Latina Vol 46(4) Dec 2000, 353-358.
• Franco, J. A., & Pecci, C. (2004). Self-medication in a psychiatric out-patients unit: Acta Psiquiatrica y Psicologica de America Latina Vol 50(2) Jun 2004, 110-120.
• Galligani, N., Renck, A., & Hansen, S. (1996). Personality profile of men using anabolic androgenic steroids: Hormones and Behavior Vol 30(2) Jun 1996, 170-175.
• Geissler, P. W., Nokes, K., Prince, R. J., Odhiambo, R. A., Aagaard-Hansen, J., & Ouma, J. H. (2000). Children and medicines: Self-treatment of common illnesses among Luo schoolchildren in western Kenya: Social Science & Medicine Vol 50(12) Jun 2000, 1771-1783.
• Gelkopf, M., Levitt, S., & Bleich, A. (2002). An integration of three approaches to addiction and Methadone maintenance treatment: The self-medication hypothesis, the disease model and social criticism: Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences Vol 39(2) 2002, 140-151.
• Gerlach, A. L., Schiller, A., Wild, C., & Rist, F. (2006). Effects of alcohol on the processing of social threat-related stimuli in socially phobic women: British Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 45(3) Sep 2006, 279-295.
• Gilkey, S. J., & Ramadan, N. M. (1996). Use of over-the-counter drugs in migraine: Issues in self-medication: CNS Drugs Vol 6(2) Aug 1996, 83-89.
• Ginsberg, B., Sinatra, R. S., Adler, L. J., Crews, J. C., Hord, A. H., Laurito, C. E., et al. (2003). Conversion to oral controlled-release oxycodone from intravenous opioid analgesic in the postoperative setting: Pain Medicine Vol 4(1) Mar 2003, 31-38.
• Globus, G. (2005). Nonlinear dynamics at the cutting edge of modernity: A postmodern view: Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology Vol 12(3) Sep 2005, 229-234.
• Goldsmith, R. J. (1993). An integrated psychology for the addictions: Beyond the self-medication hypothesis: Journal of Addictive Diseases Vol 12(3) 1993, 139-154.
• Gosnell, B. A., Krahn, D. D., Yracheta, J. M., & Harasha, B. J. (1998). The relationship between intravenous cocaine self-administration and avidity for saccharin: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 60(1) May 1998, 229-236.
• Goswami, S., Mattoo, S. K., Basu, D., & Singh, G. (2004). Substance-Abusing Schizophrenics: Do They Self-Medicate? : The American Journal on Addictions Vol 13(2) Mar-Apr 2004, 139-150.
• Gottdiener, W. H. (2008). Introduction to symposium on psychoanalytic research of substance use disorders: Psychoanalytic Psychology Vol 25(3) Jul 2008, 458-460.
• Gottdiener, W. H., Murawski, P., & Kucharski, L. T. (2008). Using the Delay Discounting Task to test for failures in ego control in substance abusers: A meta-analysis: Psychoanalytic Psychology Vol 25(3) Jul 2008, 533-549.
• Gould, O. N., McDonald-Miszczak, L., & Gregory, J. (1999). Prediction accuracy and medication instructions: Will you remember tomorrow? : Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition Vol 6(2) Jun 1999, 141-154.
• Graff, M. R., & McClanahan, M. A. (1998). Assessment by patients with diabetes mellitus of two insulin pen delivery systems versus a vial and syringe: Clinical Therapeutics: The International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Drug Therapy Vol 20(3) May-Jun 1998, 486-496.
• Grall-Bronnec, M., Balkan, T., & Botbol, M. (2005). Students, use of cannabis and psychiatric disorders: Alcoologie et Addictologie Vol 27(1) Mar 2005, 21-29.
• Grantham, G., McMillan, V., Dunn, S. V., Gassner, L.-A., & Woodcock, P. (2006). Patient self-medication--A change in hospital practice: Journal of Clinical Nursing Vol 15(8) Aug 2006, 962-970.
• Gray, N. J., Cantrill, J. A., & Noyce, P. R. (2002). 'Health repertories': An understanding of lay management of minor ailments: Patient Education and Counseling Vol 47(3) Jul 2002, 237-244.
• Greene, J. F., Kuiper, O., Morosky, M., Wightman, S., & Curry, S. L. (1999). A postpartum self-medication program: Effect on narcotic use: Journal of Women's Health & Gender-Based Medicine Vol 8(8) Oct 1999, 1073-1076.
• Gross, M. E., May, E. M., & Fini, M. A. (1992). A self-medication administration program: Journal of Geriatric Drug Therapy Vol 6(4) 1992, 73-84.
• Haag, G., Evers, S., May, A., Neu, I. S., Vivell, W., & Ziegler, A. (2004). Self medication in migraine and tension-type headache - evidence-based treatment recommendations of the German Migraine and Headache Society: Nervenheilkunde: Zeitschrift fur interdisziplinaere Fortbildung Vol 23(7) 2004, 415-430.
• Hall, D. H., & Queener, J. E. (2007). Self-medication hypothesis of substance use: Testing Khantzian's updated theory: Journal of Psychoactive Drugs Vol 39(2) Jun 2007, 151-158.
• Harai, H. (1997). Use of self-monitoring and self-drug administration to prevent severe episodes in a rapid cycling bipolar patient: Seishin Igaku (Clinical Psychiatry) Vol 39(8) Aug 1997, 843-846.
• Harris, K. M., & Edlund, M. J. (2005). Self-Medication of Mental Health Problems: New Evidence from a National Survey: Health Services Research Vol 40(1) Feb 2005, 117-134.
• Harrod, S. B., Dwoskin, L. P., Green, T. A., Gehrke, B. J., & Bardo, M. T. (2003). Lobeline does not serve as a reinforcer in rats: Psychopharmacology Vol 165(4) Feb 2003, 397-404.
• Hauger, R. L., O'Connor, K. A., Yudofsky, S., & Meltzer, H. L. (1990). Lithium toxicity: When is hemodialysis necessary? : Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Vol 81(6) Jun 1990, 515-517.
• Heinrichs, D. W. (2005). Antidepressants and the chaotic brain: Implications for the respectful treatment of selves: Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology Vol 12(3) Sep 2005, 215-227.
• Heinrichs, D. W. (2005). Chaos and clinical theory: Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology Vol 12(3) Sep 2005, 243-246.
• Hemminki, E., & Sihvo, S. (1999). Finnish physicians' opinions of vaginal estriol in self-care: Maturitas Vol 31(3) Mar 1999, 241-247.
• Hendrie, C. A., Sairally, J., & Starkey, N. (1998). Self-medication with alcohol appears not to be an effective treatment for the control of depression: Journal of Psychopharmacology Vol 12(1) 1998, 108.
• Henwood, B., & Padgett, D. K. (2007). Reevaluating the self-medication hypothesis among the dually diagnosed: The American Journal on Addictions Vol 16(3) May-Jun 2007, 160-165.
• Hussong, A. M., Gould, L. F., & Hersh, M. A. (2008). Conduct problems moderate self-medication and mood-related drinking consequences in adolescents: Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs Vol 69(2) Mar 2008, 296-307.
• Hyland, M. E., Geraghty, A. W. A., Joy, O. E. T., & Turner, S. I. (2006). Spirituality predicts outcome independently of expectancy following flower essence self-treatment: Journal of Psychosomatic Research Vol 60(1) Jan 2006, 53-58.
• Ikebuchi, E., Noto, M., Yoshida, H., Nakazawa, M., Takahashi, N., & Mori, K. (1998). Effects of psychoeducation using medication and symptom management module: Seishin Igaku (Clinical Psychiatry) Vol 40(5) May 1998, 543-546.
• Indermitte, J., Reber, D., Beutler, M., Bruppacher, R., & Hersberger, K. E. (2007). Prevalence and patient awareness of selected potential drug interactions with self-medication: Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics Vol 32(2) Apr 2007, 149-159.
• Ishii, H., Hayasaka, H., Ambo, H., & Ohashi, H. (1991). The health-seeking behavior of patient in pluralistic medical system: A social psychological field research in a Japanese urban community: Tohoku Psychologica Folia Vol 50 1991, 69-76.
• Johnson, B. (2003). Commentary on "Understanding Addictive Vulnerability." Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 29-34.
• Kagaayi, J., Dreyfuss, M. L., Kigozi, G., Chen, M. Z., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Serwadda, D., et al. (2005). Maternal Self-Medication and Provision of Nevirapine to Newborns by Women in Rakai, Uganda: JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes Vol 39(1) May 2005, 121-124.
• Kasten, B. P. (1999). Self-medication with alcohol and drugs by persons with severe mental illness: Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association Vol 5(3) Jun 1999, 80-87.
• Katerndahl, D. A., & Realini, J. P. (1999). Relationship between substance abuse and panic attacks: Addictive Behaviors Vol 24(5) Sep-Oct 1999, 731-736.
• Keating, H. J., III, & Kundrat, M. (1996). Patient-controlled analgesia with nitrous oxide in cancer pain: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management Vol 11(2) Feb 1996, 126-130.
• Kellert, S. H. (2005). The uses of borrowed knowledge: Chaos theory and antidepressants: Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology Vol 12(3) Sep 2005, 239-242.
• Kelloway, J. S., Kochevar, J. W., Sveum, R. J., & Hahn, M. A. (1993). Evaluation of the Autohaler actuator: The effect of written patient instructions on correct use: Journal of Asthma Vol 30(5) 1993, 373-379.
• Kenagy, D. N., Bird, C. T., Webber, C. M., & Fischer, J. R. (2004). Dextroamphetamine Use During B-2 Combat Missions: Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol 75(5) May 2004, 381-386.
• Kimble, L. P., & Kunik, C. L. (2000). Knowledge and use of sublingual nitroglycerin and cardiac-related quality of life in patients with chronic stable angina: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management Vol 19(2) Feb 2000, 109-117.
• King, A. C., & Miller, N. S. (1998). Medications of abuse: Opioids. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
• Kitikannakorn, N., & Sitthiworanan, C. (2007). Knowledge and accessibility of self-medication among undergraduate students in Thailand: International Journal on Disability and Human Development Vol 6(3) Jul-Sep 2007, 289-294.
• Klee, H., & Reid, P. (1998). Drug use among the young homeless: Coping through self-medication: Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine Vol 2(2) Apr 1998, 115-134.
• Koob, G. F. (2003). Commentary on "Understanding Addictive Vulnerability." Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 35-39.
• Kopelowicz, A. (1996). Self-management approaches for seriously mentally ill persons. New York, NY: Hatherleigh Press.
• Korunka, C., Guttmann, G., Schleinitz, D., Hilpert, M., & et al. (1992). The effects of suggestions and music presented during general anaesthesia on postoperative well-being: Zeitschrift fur Klinische Psychologie Vol 21(3) 1992, 272-285.
• Kosten, T. R., & Ziedonis, D. M. (1997). Substance Abuse and Schizophrenia: Editors' Introduction: Schizophrenia Bulletin Vol 23(2) 1997, 181-186.
• Kotzer, A. M., Coy, J., & LeClaire, A. D. (1998). The effectiveness of a standardized educational program for children using patient-controlled analgesia: Journal of the Society of Pediatric Nurses Vol 3(3) Jul-Sep 1998, 117-126.
• Kumari, V., & Postma, P. (2005). Nicotine use in schizophrenia: The self medication hypotheses: Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews Vol 29(6) 2005, 1021-1034.
• Kushner, M. G., Abrams, K., Thuras, P., & Hanson, K. L. (2000). Individual differences predictive of drinking to manage anxiety among non-problem drinkers with panic disorder: Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research Vol 24(4) Apr 2000, 448-458.
• Lam, C. L. K., Catarivas, M. G., Munro, C., & Lauder, I. J. (1994). Self-medication among Hong Kong Chinese: Social Science & Medicine Vol 39(12) Dec 1994, 1641-1647.
• Lanteri-Minet, M., Nachit-Ouinekh, F., Mihout, B., Slama, A., & El Hasnaoui, A. (2004). The treatment of migraine by pharmacists: A French multicenter study: Revue Neurologique Vol 160(4,Pt1) Apr 2004, 441-446.
• Lauerma, H., Nietosvaara, O., & Turunen, M. (2000). Risperidone as an antidote to hallucinogenics--should it be prescribed? : Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental Vol 15(4) Jun 2000, 301-302.
• le Grand, A., Sri-Ngernyuang, L., & Streefland, P. H. (1993). Enhancing appropriate drug use: The contribution of herbal medicine promotion: A case study in rural Thailand: Social Science & Medicine Vol 36(8) Apr 1993, 1023-1035.
• Leon, J. D., Diaz, F. J., Aguilar, M. C., Jurado, D., & Gurpegui, M. (2006). Does smoking reduce akathisia? Testing a narrow version of the self-medication hypothesis: Schizophrenia Research Vol 86(1-3) Sep 2006, 250-268.
• Lerman, C., Caporaso, N., Main, D., Audrain, J., Boyd, N. R., Bowman, E. D., et al. (1998). Depression and self-medication with nicotine: The modifying influence of the dopamine D4 receptor gene: Health Psychology Vol 17(1) Jan 1998, 56-62.
• Linden, M., Wurzendorf, K., Ploch, M., & Schaefer, M. (2008). Self medication with St. John's wort in depressive disorders: An observational study in community pharmacies: Journal of Affective Disorders Vol 107(1-3) Apr 2008, 205-210.
• Litman, R. S., & Shapiro, B. S. (1992). Oral patient-controlled analgesia in adolescents: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management Vol 7(2) Feb 1992, 78-81.
• Lynch, W. J., LaBounty, L. P., & Carroll, M. E. (1998). A novel paradigm to investigate regulation of drug intake in rats self-administering cocaine or heroin intravenously: Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology Vol 6(1) Feb 1998, 22-31.
• Markou, A., Kosten, T. R., & Koob, G. F. (1998). Neurobiological similarities in depression and drug dependence: A self-medication hypothesis: Neuropsychopharmacology Vol 18(3) Mar 1998, 135-174.
• Mattox, R. (2008). No longer bound by stigma: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 165(4) Apr 2008, 443-444.
• McKenna, L., & McIntyre, M. (2006). What over-the-counter preparations are pregnant women taking? A literature review: Journal of Advanced Nursing Vol 56(6) Dec 2006, 636-645.
• McLoone, P., & Crombie, I. K. (1996). Hospitalisation for deliberate self-poisoning in Scotland from 1981 to 1993: Trends in rates and types of drugs used: British Journal of Psychiatry Vol 169(1) Jul 1996, 81-85.
• Measom, M. O. (1996). Misuse of naltrexone: Journal of Clinical Psychiatry Vol 57(10) Oct 1996, 488-489.
• Meder, J., Morawiec, M., & Sawicka, M. (1995). The role of nurses in training patients to take an active part in their own pharmacotherapy: Psychiatria Polska Vol 29(3) May-Jun 1995, 395-404.
• Meder, J., Morawiec, M., & Sawicka, M. (1996). Nurses as leaders of medication management training module: Psychiatria Polska Vol 30(3, Suppl) May-Jun 1996, 157-165.
• Meissner, W. W. (2007). Mind, brain, and self in psychoanalysis: Therapeutic implications of the mind-body relation: Psychoanalytic Psychology Vol 24(2) Apr 2007, 333-354.
• Miller, B. E., Miller, M. N., Verhegge, R., Linville, H. H., & Pumariega, A. J. (2002). Alcohol misues among college athletes: Self-medication for psychiatric symptoms? : Journal of Drug Education Vol 32(1) 2002, 41-52.
• Miller, D. (1990). Women in pain: Substance abuse/self-medication. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
• Mitchell, J., Mathews, H. F., Hunt, L. M., Cobb, K. H., & Watson, R. W. (2001). Mismanaging prescription medications among rural elders: The effects of socioeconomic status, health status, and medication profile indicators: The Gerontologist Vol 41(3) Jun 2001, 348-356.
• Mohr, D. C., Cox, D., Epstein, L., & Boudewyn, A. (2002). Teaching patients to self-inject: Pilot study of a treatment for injection anxiety and phobia in multiple sclerosis patients prescribed injectable medications: Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry Vol 33(1) Mar 2002, 39-47.
• Montagne, M. (1992). The promotion of medications for personal and social problems: Journal of Drug Issues Vol 22(2) Spr 1992, 389-405.
• Morasco, B. J., & Dobscha, S. K. (2008). Prescription medication misuse and substance use disorder in VA primary care patients with chronic pain: General Hospital Psychiatry Vol 30(2) Mar 2008, 93-99.
• Morrison, V. (2003). Commentary on "Understanding Addictive Vulnerability." Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 39-42.
• Morrow, D. G., Leirer, V. O., Andrassy, J. M., Tanke, E. D., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (1996). Medication instruction design: Younger and older adult schemas for taking medication: Human Factors Vol 38(4) Dec 1996, 556-573.
• Murdaugh, C. L. (1998). Problems with adherence in the elderly. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co.
• Murphy, S. L., & Khantzian, E. J. (1996). Addiction as a "self-medication" disorder: Application of ego psychology to the treatment of substance abuse. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
• Neafsey, P. J., Strickler, Z., Shellman, J., & Chartier, V. (2002). An interactive technology approach to educate older adults about drug interactions arising from over-the-counter self-medication practices: Public Health Nursing Vol 19(4) Jul-Aug 2002, 255-262.
• Nichol, M. B., McCombs, J. S., Johnson, K. A., Spacapan, S., & et al. (1992). The effects of consultation on over-the-counter medication purchasing decisions: Medical Care Vol 30(11) Nov 1992, 989-1003.
• Nicholas, P. K., Voss, J. G., Corless, I. B., Lindgren, T. G., Wantland, D. J., Kemppainen, J. K., et al. (2007). Unhealthy behaviours for self-management of HIV-related peripheral neuropathy: AIDS Care Vol 19(10) 2007, 1266-1273.
• Norman, A. B., Norman, M. K., Hall, J. F., & Tsibulsky, V. L. (1999). Priming threshold: A novel quantitative measure of the reinstatement of cocaine self-administration: Brain Research Vol 831(1-2) Jun 1999, 165-174.
• Oswald, L. M., Roache, J. D., & Rhoades, H. M. (1999). Predictors of individual differences in alprazolam self-medication: Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology Vol 7(4) Nov 1999, 379-390.
• Pagan, J. A., Ross, S., Yau, J., & Polsky, D. (2006). Self-medication and health insurance coverage in Mexico: Health Policy Vol 75(2) Jan 2006, 170-177.
• Palmer, H. M., & Dobson, K. S. (1994). Self-medication and memory in an elderly Canadian sample: The Gerontologist Vol 34(5) Oct 1994, 658-664.
• Panksepp, J. (2003). Commentary on "Understanding Addictive Vulnerability." Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 21-29.
• Patrick, L., & Howell, K. (1998). Mental status and self-medication ability in the hospitalized elderly: Canadian Journal on Aging Vol 17(4) Win 1998, 425-439.
• Patterson, T. L., Lacro, J., McKibbin, C. L., Moscona, S., Hughs, T., & Jeste, D. V. (2002). Medication Management Ability Assessment: Results from a performance-based measure in older outpatients with schizophrenia: Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology Vol 22(1) Feb 2002, 11-19.
• Pereles, L., Romonko, L., Murzyn, T., Hogan, D., & et al. (1996). Evaluation of a self-medication program: Journal of the American Geriatrics Society Vol 44(2) Feb 1996, 161-165.
• Peter, P., & Zsolt, D. (2007). The role of cannabis use in psychosis: Psychiatria Hungarica Vol 22(2) 2007, 145-162.
• Pettersson, E., Gardulf, A., Nordstrom, G., Svanberg-Johnsson, C., & Bylin, G. (1999). Evaluation of a nurse-run asthma school: International Journal of Nursing Studies Vol 36(2) Apr 1999, 145-151.
• Pillitteri, J. L., Kozlowski, L. T., Person, D. C., & Spear, M. E. (1994). Over-the-counter sleep aids: Widely used but rarely studied: Journal of Substance Abuse Vol 6(3) 1994, 315-323.
• Porter, L. S., Gil, K. M., Sedway, J. A., Ready, J., Workman, E., & Thompson, R. J., Jr. (1998). Pain and stress in sickle cell disease: An analysis of daily pain records: International Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 5(3) 1998, 185-203.
• Potvin, S., Sepehry, A. A., & Stip, E. (2006). A meta-analysis of negative symptoms in dual diagnosis schizophrenia: Psychological Medicine Vol 36(4) Apr 2006, 431-440.
• Potvin, S., Stip, E., & Roy, J. Y. (2003). Schizophrenia and addiction: An evaluation of the self-medication hypothesis: L'Encephale Vol 29(3) May-Jun 2003, 193-203.
• Putcha, L., Berens, K. L., Marshburn, T. H., Ortega, H. J., & Billica, R. D. (1999). Pharmaceutical use by U.S. astronauts on Space Shuttle missions: Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol 70(7) Jul 1999, 705-708.
• Pylypa, J. (2001). Self-medication practices in two California Mexican communities: Journal of Immigrant Health Vol 3(2) Apr 2001, 59-75.
• Raimo, E. B., & Schuckit, M. A. (1998). Alcohol dependence and mood disorders: Addictive Behaviors Vol 23(6) Nov-Dec 1998, 933-946.
• Redvers, A., Laugharne, R., Kanagaratnam, G., & Srinivasan, G. (2001). How many patients self-medicate with St John's wort? : Psychiatric Bulletin Vol 25(7) Jul 2001, 254-256.
• Reid, B. V. (1992). "It's like you're down on a bed of affliction": Aging and diabetes among Black Americans: Social Science & Medicine Vol 34(12) Jun 1992, 1317-1323.
• Rey, J. M., & Tennant, C. C. (2002). Cannabis and mental health: BMJ: British Medical Journal Vol 325(7374) Nov 2002, 1183-1184.
• Riedel-Heller, S. G., Matschinger, H., Schork, A., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2001). The utilization of antidepressants in community-dwelling and institutionalized elderly--Results from a representative survey in Germany: Pharmacopsychiatry Vol 34(1) Jan 2001, 6-12.
• Roberts, A. J., Smith, A. D., Weiss, F., Rivier, C., & Koob, G. F. (1998). Estrous cycle effects on operant responding for ethanol in female rats: Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research Vol 22(7) Oct 1998, 1564-1569.
• Roehrs, T., Bonahoom, A., Pedrosi, B., Zorick, F., & Roth, T. (2002). Nighttime versus daytime hypnotic self-administration: Psychopharmacology Vol 161(2) May 2002, 137-142.
• Roehrs, T., Pedrosi, B., Rosenthal, L., & Roth, T. (1996). Hypnotic self administration and dose escalation: Psychopharmacology Vol 127(2) Sep 1996, 150-154.
• Roehrs, T., Pedrosi, B., Rosenthal, L., Zorick, F., & Roth, T. (1997). Hypnotic self administration: Forced-choice versus single-choice: Psychopharmacology Vol 133(2) Sep 1997, 121-126.
• Roehrs, T. A., Merlotti, L. A., Zorick, F., & Roth, T. (1992). Rebound insomnia and hypnotic self administration: Psychopharmacology Vol 107(4) Jun 1992, 480-484.
• Rotton, J., & Shats, M. (1996). Effects of state humor, expectancies, and choice on postsurgical mood and self-medication: A field experiment: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 26(20) Oct 1996, 1775-1794.
• Sajatovic, M., Bauer, M. S., Kilbourne, A. M., Vertrees, J. E., & Williford, W. (2006). Self-reported medication treatment adherence among veterans with bipolar disorder: Psychiatric Services Vol 57(1) Jan 2006, 56-62.
• Sajatovic, M., Davies, M., & Hrouda, D. R. (2004). Enhancement of Treatment Adherence Among Patients With Bipolar Disorder: Psychiatric Services Vol 55(3) Mar 2004, 264-269.
• Sakkas, P., Psarros, C., Masdrakis, V., Liappas, J., & Christodoulou, G. N. (1999). Dependence on zolpidem: A case report: European Psychiatry Vol 14(6) Oct 1999, 358-359.
• Satia-Abouta, J., Kristal, A. R., Patterson, R. E., Littman, A. J., Stratton, K. L., & White, E. (2003). Dietary Supplement Use and Medical Conditions: The VITAL Study: American Journal of Preventive Medicine Vol 24(1) Jan 2003, 43-51.
• Sawyer, S. M., & Aroni, R. A. (2003). Sticky issue of adherence: Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health Vol 39(1) Jan 2003, 2-5.
• Scheller-Gilkey, G., Woolwine, B. J., Cooper, I., Gay, O., Moynes, K. A., & Miller, A. H. (2003). Relationship of Clinical Symptoms and Substance Use in Schizophrenia Patients on Conventional Versus Atypical Antipsychotics: American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Vol 29(3) Aug 2003, 553-566.
• Schelling, G., Mendl, G., Weber, W., Pauletzki, J., & et al. (1992). Patient controlled analgesia for extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy of gallstones: Pain Vol 48(3) Mar 1992, 355-359.
• Schinka, J. A., Curtiss, G., & Mulloy, J. M. (1994). Personality variables and self-medication in substance abuse: Journal of Personality Assessment Vol 63(3) Dec 1994, 413-422.
• Schmitz, J. M., Rhoades, H. M., Elk, R., Creson, D., Hussein, I., & Grabowski, J. (1998). Medication take-home doses and contingency management: Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology Vol 6(2) May 1998, 162-168.
• Schoemaker, C., Smit, F., Bijl, R. V., & Vollenbergh, W. A. M. (2002). Bulimia nervosa following psychological and multiple child abuse: Support for the self-medication hypothesis in a population-based cohort study: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 32(4) Dec 2002, 381-388.
• Scott, S. E., Grunfeld, E. A., Main, J., & McGurk, M. (2006). Patient Delay in Oral Cancer: A Qualitative Study of Patients' Experiences: Psycho-Oncology Vol 15(6) Jun 2006, 474-485.
• Serper, M. R., Alpert, M., & Trujillo, M. (1996). Recent cocaine use decreases negative signs in acute schizophrenia: A case study over two consecutive admissions: Biological Psychiatry Vol 39(9) May 1996, 816-818.
• Shapiro, B. S., Cohen, D. E., & Howe, C. J. (1993). Patient-controlled analgesia for sickle-cell-related pain: Journal of Pain and Symptom Management Vol 8(1) Jan 1993, 22-28.
• Shepherd, R.-M., & Edelmann, R. J. (2007). Social phobia and the self medication hypothesis: A case study approach: Counselling Psychology Quarterly Vol 20(3) Sep 2007, 295-307.
• Shiloh, S., Zukerman, G., Butin, B., Deutch, A., Yardeni, I., Benyamini, Y., et al. (2003). Postoperative patient-controlled analgesia (PCA): How much control and how much analgesia? : Psychology & Health Vol 18(6) Dec 2003, 753-770.
• Shipherd, J. C., Stafford, J., & Tanner, L. R. (2005). Predicting alcohol and drug abuse in Persian Gulf War veterans: What role do PTSD symptoms play? : Addictive Behaviors Vol 30(3) 2005, 595-599.
• Sihvo, S., & Hemminki, E. (1999). Self-medication and health habits in the management of upper gastrointestinal symptoms: Patient Education and Counseling Vol 37(1) May 1999, 55-63.
• Skarupski, K. A., Mrvos, R., & Krenzelok, E. P. (2004). A Profile of Calls to a Poison Information Center Regarding Older Adults: Journal of Aging and Health Vol 16(2) Apr 2004, 228-247.
• Sloand, E. D., & Vessey, J. A. (2001). Self-medication with common household medicines by young adolescents: Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing Vol 24(1) Jan-Mar 2001, 57-67.
• Smith, G. E., Lunde, A. M., Hathaway, J. C., & Vickers, K. S. (2007). Telehealth home monitoring of solitary persons with mild dementia: American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias Vol 22(1) Feb-Mar 2007, 20-26.
• Sorofman, B. (1992). Drug promotion in self-care and self-medication: Journal of Drug Issues Vol 22(2) Spr 1992, 377-388.
• Soutullo, C. A., Cottingham, E. M., & Keck, P. E., Jr. (1999). Psychosis associated with pseudoephedrine and dextromethorphan: Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Vol 38(12) Dec 1999, 1471-1472.
• Suarez, Z. E. (1992). Use of self-care by Hispanics: Culture, access or need? : Journal of Health & Social Policy Vol 4(2) 1992, 31-45.
• Suh, J. J., Ruffins, S., Robins, C. E., Albanese, M. J., & Khantzian, E. J. (2008). Self-medication hypothesis: Connecting affective experience and drug choice: Psychoanalytic Psychology Vol 25(3) Jul 2008, 518-532.
• Swendsen, J. D., Tennen, H., Carney, M. A., Affleck, G., Willard, A., & Hromi, A. (2000). Mood and alcohol consumption: An experience sampling test of the self-medication hypothesis: Journal of Abnormal Psychology Vol 109(2) May 2000, 198-204.
• Thiel, A., Nau, R., Lehmann, K., & Willers, T. (1993). Intoxication in manic patients following chaotic self-administration of lithium: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Vol 88(4) Oct 1993, 289-291.
• Thomas, V. J., Rose, F. D., Heath, M. L., & Flory, P. (1993). A multidimensional comparison of nurse and patient controlled analgesia in the management of acute postsurgical pain: Medical Science Research Vol 21(10) May 1993, 379-381.
• Tomlinson, K. L., Tate, S. R., Anderson, K. G., McCarthy, D. M., & Brown, S. A. (2006). An examination of self-medication and rebound effects: Psychiatric symptomatology before and after alcohol or drug relapse: Addictive Behaviors Vol 31(3) Mar 2006, 461-474.
• Tornatzky, W., & Miczek, K. A. (1999). Repeated limited access to IV cocaine self-administration: Conditioned autonomic rhythmicity illustrating "predictive homeostasis." Psychopharmacology Vol 145(2) Jul 1999, 144-152.
• Trendelenburg, G., Heinz, A., & Strohle, A. (2004). gamma -Hydroxybutyrate Dependence With Social Phobia: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 161(2) Feb 2004, 375-376.
• Trendelenburg, G., Heinz, A., & Strohle, A. (2004). "gamma -Hydroxybutyrate Dependence With Social Phobia": Erratum: American Journal of Psychiatry Vol 161(5) May 2004, 942.
• Turkewitz, L. J., Casaly, J. S., Dawson, G. A., Wirth, O., & et al. (1992). Self-administration of parenteral ketorolac tromethamine for head pain: Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain Vol 32(9) Oct 1992, 452-454.
• Vaananen, M. H., Pietila, K., & Airaksinen, M. (2006). Self-medication with antibiotics--Does it really happen in Europe? : Health Policy Vol 77(2) Aug 2006, 166-171.
• Vaillancourt, R., Gutschi, L. M., & Boddam, R. (2006). Antidepressant Usage in the Canadian Forces: Military Medicine Vol 171(2) Feb 2006, 107-111.
• van der Palen, J., Klein, J. J., Kerkhoff, A. H. M., van Herwaarden, C. L. A., Zielhuis, G. A., & Seydel, E. R. (1999). Inhalation technique of 166 adult asthmatics prior to and following a self-management program: Journal of Asthma Vol 36(5) 1999, 441-447.
• Vargas-Carmona, J., Newcomb, M. D., & Galaif, E. R. (2002). The prospective relations between drug problems and intimacy in a community sample of adults: Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology Vol 21(2) Jun 2002, 129-156.
• Villalba, J. J., Provenza, F. D., & Shaw, R. (2006). Sheep self-medicate when challenged with illness-inducing foods: Animal Behaviour Vol 71(5) May 2006, 1131-1139.
• Viscusi, E. R., Reynolds, L., Chung, F., Atkinson, L. E., & Khanna, S. (2004). Patient-Controlled Transdermal Fentanyl Hydrochloride vs Intravenous Morphine Pump for Postoperative Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial: JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association Vol 291(11) Mar 2004, 1333-1341.
• Vlahov, D., O'Driscoll, P., Mehta, S. H., Ompad, D. C., Gern, R., Galai, N., et al. (2007). Risk factors for methadone outside treatment programs: Implications for HIV treatment among injection drug users: Addiction Vol 102(5) May 2007, 771-777.
• Wagner, P. J., Jester, D., LeClair, B., Taylor, T., Woodward, L., & Lambert, J. (1999). Taking the edge off: Why patients choose St. John's Wort: The Journal of Family Practice Vol 48(8) Aug 1999, 615-619.
• Wahman, J. (2005). Determined by chaos: The nonlinear dynamics of free will: Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology Vol 12(3) Sep 2005, 235-237.
• Watson, R. (2006). Editorial: Self-medication: Whatever next? : Journal of Clinical Nursing Vol 15(8) Aug 2006, 935.
• Wauquier, A., McGrady, A., Aloe, L., Klausner, T., & et al. (1995). Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity associated with biofeedback-assisted relaxation treatment of migraine headaches are specific for the middle cerebral artery: Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain Vol 35(6) Jun 1995, 358-362.
• Weaver, M. F., Bond, D. S., Arnold, B. L., Waterhouse, E., & Towne, A. (2006). Aberrant Drug-taking Behaviors and Headache: Patient Versus Physician Report: American Journal of Health Behavior Vol 30(5) Sep-Oct 2006, 475-482.
• Weiss, R. D., Griffin, M. L., & Mirin, S. M. (1992). Drug abuse as self-medication for depression: An empirical study: American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Vol 18(2) Jun 1992, 121-129.
• Weisz, M. A., El-Raheb, M., & Blumenthal, H. J. (1994). Home administration of intramuscular DHE for the treatment of acute migraine headache: Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain Vol 34(6) Jun 1994, 371-373.
• Wieck, K. L. (1992). Variables which influence older women's self-medication practices: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Wilens, T. E., Adamson, J., Sgambati, S., Whitley, J., Santry, A., Monuteaux, M. C., et al. (2007). Do Individuals with ADHD Self-Medicate with Cigarettes and Substances of Abuse? Results from a Controlled Family Study of ADHD: The American Journal on Addictions Vol 16(Suppl 1) Jan 2007, 14-23.
• Winkelstein, M. L., Huss, K., Butz, A., Eggleston, P., Vargas, P., & Rand, C. (2000). Factors associated with medication self-administration in children with asthma: Clinical Pediatrics Vol 39(6) Jun 2000, 337-345.
• Wu, C. C. J., Xue, Z.-Y., Apichat, K., Huang, S.-T., He, Z., & Garceau, R. J. (1996). The use of alprostadil sterile powder in a home self-injection study of Asian men with erectile dysfunction: Clinical Therapeutics: The International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Drug Therapy Vol 18(2) Mar-Apr 1996, 256-264.
• Yorke, C. (2003). Commentary on "Understanding Addictive Vulnerability." Neuro-Psychoanalysis Vol 5(1) 2003, 42-53.
• Zahorik, P. M. (1992). Juvenile diabetes: A study of children's perceptions of their illness: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Zucker, T.-P., Flesche, C. W., Germing, U., Schroter, S., Willers, R., Wolf, H.-H., et al. (1998). Patient-controlled versus staff-controlled analgesia with pethidine after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: Pain Vol 75(2-3) Apr 1998, 305-312.

=Dissertations

• Adcock, S. A. W. (1993). The development and evaluation of an educational intervention to teach responsible medication use to senior adults: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Alexander, G. L. (1992). Social support, self-esteem, and medication-taking behavior in older adults: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Branin, J. J. (2003). Correlates of strategy use in medication adherence among older adults. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Caffery, D. M. (2007). Components of medication management: Psychometric properties of the Cognitive Screen for Medication Self-Management (CSMS) test in older adults. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Charupatanapong, N. (1990). An analysis of consumers' risk perceptions of their self-medication practices in Thailand: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Damphousse, K. R. (1995). Reciprocal relationships between adolescent drug use and psychological distress: An examination of the self-medication hypothesis. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
• Dowell, M. S. (1991). People's expectations of their medications: An ethnographic study: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Hall, D. H. (2005). Contributing to self-medication hypothesis research: A focus on severity of substance abuse and negative affect states in a methadone maintenance population. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Lynch, W. J. (2000). Regulation of intravenously self-administered drug intake in rats: Factors affecting, mechanisms underlying, and sex differences. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Miller, N. G. (1991). Decreasing medication abuse in psychiatric outpatients using special packaging: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Miralles, M. A. (1993). Access to care and medication use among the ambulatory elderly in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Ostrowsky, M. K. (2007). Extending khantzian's self-medication hypothesis: An examination of low self-esteem, depression, alcohol use, marijuana use, and violent behavior. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
• Pabon, T. M. (2004). The self-medication theory of addictive disorders: Motivational aspects of drug addiction. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Rice, M. A. (1998). Concordant and discordant drug use in intimate relationships: A longitudinal study. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Robinson, R. J. (2008). Comorbidity of alcohol abuse and depression: Exploring the self-medication hypothesis. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
• Stawar, T. L. (1991). Perceptual learning style, modality-specific mnemonic elaboration strategies and achievement of severely psychiatrically disabled adults in self-medication management skills training: Dissertation Abstracts International.
• Stockwell, L. M. (1993). A qualitative exploration of medication-taking behaviors in the elderly: Dissertation Abstracts International.

External links

• Self-Medication Hypothesis informational website.