Changes: Respiration

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Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)

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Respiration, is the biological function of the respiratory system, by which an organism, through the physiological processes of respiration absorbs oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide.

Psychologists are interested in respiration from a number of points of view. How do psychological factors affect respiration? How does respiration effect psychological factors such as concentration, emotion etc.?

See the following subjects :

Abnormal or pathological breathing

- Agonal respiration
- Apneustic respirations
- Artificial respiration
- Ataxic respiration
- Biot's respiration
- Cheyne-Stokes respiration
- Hypoventilation (also known as respiratory depression) occurs when ventilation is inadequate to perform needed gas exchange
- Inspiratory paroxysmal respiration (also known as "reverse sneezing"), a phenomenon observed in dogs (Especially small dogs)
- Hyperventilation
- Respiratory arrest, the cessation of the normal tidal flow of the lungs due to paralysis of the diaphragm
- Respiratory therapy or Inhalation therapy, the assessment and treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular pathologies

References

External links

Paul, Anthony D., et al (1995). "Neuronal Connections of a Ventral Brainstem Respiratory Chemosensitive Area" C. Ovid Trouth Ventral brainstem mechanisms and control of respiration and blood pressure, 517–523, New York: M. Dekker.
Rabbany, Sina Y., "Breathing Coordination", Hofstra University [1]
Webber, Charles L., Jr., Ph.D, Pulmonary Curriculum Function:"Neural Control of Breathing", Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University-Chicago [2]

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+{{Biopsy}}
-Physiologists (see [[Physiology]]) have also studied the mechanisms that are involved in [[gas exchange]]s between the [[blood]] of an animal and the environment, or the mechanisms that are involved in the transport of gas in the body. In this case, it refers to :
+{{PsyPerspective}}
-Respiration, the biological function ot the [[respiratory system]], by which the organism absorbs [[oxygen]] and disposes of [[carbon dioxide]]. See the following subjects :
+'''Respiration''', is the biological function of the [[respiratory system]], by which an organism, through the [[physiological processes of respiration]] absorbs [[oxygen]] and disposes of [[carbon dioxide]].
+Psychologists are interested in respiration from a number of points of view. How do [[psychological factors]] affect respiration? How does respiration effect psychological factors such as [[concentration]], [[emotion]] etc.?
-==Control of respiration==
-'''Control of ventilation''' (''control of respiration'') refers to the [[physiology|physiological]] mechanisms involved in the control of [[ventilation (physiology)|physiologic ventilation]]. Gas exchange primarily controls the rate of respiration.
-The most important function of [[breath]]ing is gas exchange (of [[oxygen]] and [[carbon dioxide]]). Thus the control of respiration is centered primarily on how well this is achieved by the [[lungs]].
-== Control Unit ==
-The control unit of ventilation consists of a processor (the breathing centre in the [[brain]]) which integrates inputs (emotional, chemical and physical stimuli) and controls an effector (the [[lungs]]) via [[motor nerves]] arising from the [[spinal cord]]. In humans, quiet breathing occurs by the cyclical contraction of the inspiratory muscles, particularly the [[Diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]]. [[Inhalation]] is normally an active process, and [[exhalation]] is passive. However, when ventilation is increased (over 40 litres per minute), such as during heavy [[exercise]], muscle activity becomes involved in exhalation. Under these circumstances, the work of breathing over time can exceed the metabolic rate of the rest of the body.
-== Ventilatory Pattern ==
-The pattern neuronal firing when breathing can be divided into inspiratory and expiratory phases. Inspiration shows a sudden ramp increase in motor discharge to the inspiratory muscles (including pharyngeal dilator muscles). Before the end of inspiration, there is a decline in motor discharge. Exhalation is usually silent, except at high [[minute ventilation]] rates.
-The mechanism of generation of the ventilatory pattern is not completely understood, but involves the integration of neural signals by respiratory control centres in the [[medulla]] and [[pons]]. The nuclei known to be involved are divided into regions known as the following:
-* medulla ([[reticular formation]])
-** [[ventral respiratory group]] ([[nucleus retroambigualis]], [[nucleus ambiguus]], [[nucleus parambigualis]] and the [[pre-Botzinger complex]]). The ventral respiratory group controls voluntary forced exhalation and acts to increase the force of inspiration.
-** [[dorsal respiratory group]] ([[nucleus tractus solitarius]]). The dorsal respiratory group controls mostly inspiratory movements and their timing.
-* pons
-** [[pneumotaxic center]].
-•	Coordinates transition between inhalation and exhalation
-•	Sends inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area
-•	The pneumotaxic center is involved in fine tuning of respiration rate.
-* [[apneustic center]]
-•	Coordinates transition between inhalation and exhalation
-•	Sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area – activates and prolongs inhalation (long deep breaths)
-•	Pnemotaxic control overrides signals from the apneustic area to end inspiration
-There is further integration in the [[anterior horn]] cells of the [[spinal cord]].
-Ventilation is normally controlled by the [[autonomic nervous system]], with only limited voluntary override.  An exception to this is [[Ondine's curse]], where autonomic control is lost.
-== Determinants of Ventilatory Rate ==
-Ventilatory rate (minute volume) is tightly controlled and determined primarily by blood levels of [[carbon dioxide]] as determined by [[metabolic rate]]. Blood levels of [[oxygen]] become important in [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. These levels are sensed by [[chemoreceptor]]s in the [[medulla oblongata]] for pH, and the [[carotid body|carotid]] and [[aortic body|aortic]] bodies for oxygen and carbon dioxide.  Afferent neurons from the carotid bodies and aortic bodies are via the [[glossopharyngeal nerve]] (CN IX) and the [[vagus nerve]] (CN X), respectively.
-Levels of CO<sub>2</sub> rise in the blood when the metabolic use of O<sub>2</sub> is increased beyond the capacity of the lungs to expel CO<sub>2</sub>. CO<sub>2</sub> is stored largely in the blood as bicarbonate (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) ions, by conversion first to carbonic acid (H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>), by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, and then by disassociation of this acid to H<sup>+</sup> and HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>. Build-up of CO<sub>2</sub> therefore causes an equivalent build-up of the disassociated hydrogen ion, which, by definition, decreases the pH of  the blood.
-During moderate [[exercise]], ventilation increases in proportion to [[metabolism|metabolic]] production of carbon dioxide. During strenuous exercise, ventilation increases more than needed to compensate for carbon dioxide production. [[Lactic acid]] produced during [[anaerobic metabolism]] lowers [[pH]] and thus increases breathing. In [[aerobic metabolism]], one molecule of acid (CO<sub>2</sub>) is produced in order to produce 6 molecules of the energy carrier [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], whereas in anaerobic metabolism, 6 molecules of lactic acid are produced to provide the same amount of energy.
-Mechanical stimulation of the lungs can trigger certain reflexes as discovered in animal studies. In humans, these seem to be more important in neonates and ventilated patients, but of little relevance in health. The tone of respiratory muscle is believed to be modulated by [[muscle spindle]]s via a reflex arc involving the spinal cord.
-Drugs for example [[respiration stimulating drugs]] can greatly influence the control of respiration. [[Opioids]] and anaesthetic drugs tend to depress ventilation, especially with regards to [[Carbon Dioxide]] response. Stimulants such as [[Amphetamines]] can cause [[hyperventilation]].
-[[Pregnancy]] tends to increase ventilation (lowering plasma carbon dioxide tension below normal values). This is due to increased [[progesterone]] levels and results in enhanced gas exchange in the [[placenta]].
-Ventilation is temporarily modified by voluntary acts and complex reflexes such as sneezing, coughing and vomiting.
-== Feedback control ==
-[[sensory receptor|Receptor]]s play important roles in the regulation of respiration; central and peripheral [[chemoreceptor]]s, and [[mechanoreceptor]]s.
-* '''[[Central chemoreceptors]]''' of the central nervous system, located on the ventrolateral medullary surface, are sensitive to the [[pH]] of their environment<ref name="Coates"> Coates EL, Li A, Nattie EE. Widespread sites of brain stem ventilatory chemoreceptors. J Appl Physiol. 75(1):5-14, 1984. </ref> <ref name="Cordovez"> Cordovez JM, Clausen C, Moore LC, Solomon, IC. A mathematical model of pH(i) regulation in central CO<sub>2</sub> chemoreception. Adv Exp Med Biol. 605:306-11, 2008. </ref>.
-* '''[[Peripheral chemoreceptors]]''' act most importantly to detect variation of the [[oxygen]] in the [[arterial blood]], in addition to detecting arterial carbon dioxide and pH.
-* '''[[Mechanoreceptors]]''' are located in the [[airway]]s and [[parenchyma]], and are responsible for a variety of reflex responses.  These include:
-** The [[Hering-Breuer reflex]] that terminates inspiration to prevent over inflation of the lungs, and the reflex responses of [[coughing]], [[airway constriction]], and [[hyperventilation]].
-** The upper airway receptors are responsible for reflex responses such as, [[sneezing]], coughing, closure of [[glottis]], and [[hiccups]].
-** The [[spinal cord]] reflex responses include the activation of additional respiratory muscles as compensation, gasping response, hypoventilation, and an increase in breathing frequency and volume.
-In addition to involuntary control of respiration by the respiratory center, respiration can be affected by conditions such as emotional state, via input from the [[limbic system]], or [[temperature]], via the [[hypothalamus]].  Voluntary control of respiration is provided via the [[cerebral cortex]], although chemoreceptor reflex is capable of overriding conscious control.
+See the following subjects :
 ==Abnormal or pathological breathing==
@@ Line 77: / Line 23: @@
 **[[Respiratory therapy]] or [[Inhalation therapy]], the assessment and treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular pathologies
+== See also ==
+* [[Anapana]]
+* [[I/E ratio]]
+* [[Meditation breathing]]
+* [[Respiration rate]]
+* [[Respiratory system]]
+* [[Aquatic respiration]], the process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water
-==See also==
-**[[Aquatic respiration]], the process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water
+* [[External respiration]], the process by which gases are exchanged between the atmosphere and the [[pulmonary loop]] of circulation.
+* [[Muscles of respiration]]
-**[[External respiration]], the process by which gases are exchanged between the atmosphere and the [[pulmonary loop]] of circulation.
-**[[Muscles of respiration]]
+* [[Reptilian respiration]]
+* [[Respiration stimulating drugs]]
-*[[Respiration (physiology)]], the process by which multicellular organisms capture and excrete the gaseous fuel and waste of cellular respiration
-**[[Respiratory system]] of humans and other mammals
+* [[Respiratory tract]] in humans is the part of the anatomy that has to do with the process of (physiological) respiration
-**[[Respiratory tract]] in humans is the part of the anatomy that has to do with the process of (physiological) respiration
+* [[Respiratory rate]], the number of breaths an animal takes per minute
-**[[Respiratory rate]], the number of breaths an animal takes per minute
 * [[Respiratory tract disorders]]
 * [[Respiratory distress]]

v·d·e Respiratory system, physiology: respiratory physiology
Volumes	lung volumes - vital capacity - functional residual capacity - respiratory minute volume - closing capacity - dead space - spirometry - body plethysmography - peak flow meter - thoracic independent volume - bronchial challenge test
Airways	ventilation (V) (positive pressure) - breath (inhalation, exhalation) -respiratory rate - respirometer - pulmonary surfactant - compliance - hysteresivity - airway resistance
Blood	pulmonary circulation - perfusion (Q) - hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction - pulmonary shunt
Interactions	ventilation/perfusion ratio (V/Q) and scan - zones of the lung - gas exchange - pulmonary gas pressures - alveolar gas equation - hemoglobin - oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve (2,3-DPG, Bohr effect, Haldane effect) - carbonic anhydrase (chloride shift) - oxyhemoglobin - respiratory quotient - arterial blood gas - diffusion capacity - Dlco
Control of respiration	pons (pneumotaxic center, apneustic center) - medulla (dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group) - chemoreceptors (central, peripheral) - pulmonary stretch receptors - Hering-Breuer reflex
Insufficiency	high altitude - oxygen toxicity - hypoxia