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(See below for definitions of rape)

Rape is a crime where the victim is forced into sexual activity, in particular sexual penetration, against his or her will through use of physical force, threat of injury, or other duress. It is also considered rape if the victim is unable to say "no" to intercourse, due to the effects of drugs or alcohol. The word originates from the Latin verb rapere: to seize or take by force. The Latin term for the act of rape itself is raptus.

Contents 1 Definitions of rape 2 Rape and human rights 3 Sociobiological analysis of rape 4 The role of control and loss of privacy in rape 5 Quotes 6 References 7 See also 8 Further reading 8.1 Academic and reference books 8.2 Others 9 External links 9.1 Research resources on sexual assault and rape

[edit] Definitions of rape

Rape is, in most jurisdictions, a crime defined as sexual intercourse or penetration without valid consent by both parties. In some jurisdictions, rape is defined by penetration of the anus or the vagina by a penis, while in other jurisdictions, the penetration of either the vagina or the anus need not be by a penis, but can be by other objects such as a finger or a dildo. Some jurisdictions expand the definition of rape further to include other sexual acts without valid consent, including oral copulation and masturbation. The lack of valid consent does not necessarily mean that the victim explicitly refused to give consent; generally, where consent was obtained by physical force, threat of injury, or other duress, or where consent was given by a person whose age was below the age of consent, a person who was intoxicated by drugs or alcohol, or a person who was mentally impaired by illness or developmental disability, the consent is considered invalid. (When the sexual activity involved a person whose age was below the age of consent, the crime defined is often known as "statutory rape," although a number of jurisdictions use terms such as "unlawful sexual intercourse" to avoid the forcible connotation of the word "rape.")

In some circumstances consent to sexual intercourse may be implied. For example in most Western countries until recently a woman was assumed to have given full consent on marriage to sexual intercourse with her husband, thus making it impossible for a husband to be guilty of raping his wife.

[edit] Rape and human rights

Probably for much of human history, rape, violence, and war have often occurred in connection with one another. In the twentieth century, the use of rape as a "weapon of war" has been well documented and addressed by NGOs as well as the United Nations, [1] and national governments.

[edit] Sociobiological analysis of rape

Main article: Sociobiological theories of rape

Some animals appear to exhibit behaviors which resemble rape in humans, in particular combining sexual intercourse with violent assault, such as are observed in ducks, geese, and certain species of dolphins. It is difficult to determine to what extent the idea of rape can be extended to intercourse in animal species, as the defining attribute of rape in humans is the lack of informed consent, which is difficult to determine in animals. (Also see: Non-human animal sexuality)

Some sociobiologists argue that our ability to understand rape, and thereby prevent and treat it, is severely compromised because its basis in human evolution has been ignored. They argue that rape, as a reproductive strategy, is encountered in many instances in the animal kingdom, including among the great apes, and presumably also among early humans. Some studies indicate that it is an evolutionary strategy for certain males who lack the ability to persuade the female by non-violent means to pass on their genes. (Thornhill & Thornhill, 1983). Such sociobiological theories, regarding rape as adaptive, are highly controversial, and are not accepted by all mainstream scientists.

Camille Paglia and some sociobiologists have argued that victim-blaming should not be totally dismissed in all cases, since some sociological models suggest that it may be genetically-inbuilt for a certain proportion of men and women to act in ways which would tend to raise the chances of rape occurring, and that this may be a biological feature of the species. This, however, is a very controversial view. A contrasting view, given by Lewis Thomas in his "The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a biology watcher", claims that rape is not only not an evolutionary benefit to the rapist, but that it is strongly maladaptive, and therefore selected against. Others dismiss Lewis Thomas' conclusion, by pointing out that what is maladaptive in one place and time, may be adaptive in another place and time. For example, in certain animal groups females only voluntarily mate with alpha males. In such an environment, non-alpha males are able to pass on their genes by impregnating females without their consent. Clearly, in animals with this behavior, the genes of non-alpha males who don't participate in this strategy are lost forever, while the genes of non-alpha males who do participate in this strategy are passed on.

[edit] The role of control and loss of privacy in rape

Rape has been regarded as "a crime of violence and control" since the 1970s. According to psychological analysis literature, "control" is a key feature in most definitions of privacy:

• "Privacy is not the absence of other people from one's presence, but the control over the contact one has with them." (Pedersen, D. 1997).
• "Selective control of access to the self." (Margulis, 2003)

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Control is important in providing:

• what we need for normal psychological functioning;
• stable interpersonal relationships; and
• personal development. (Pedersen, D. 1997)

Violation of privacy or "control" come in many forms, with sexual assault and the resulting psychological traumas being one of the most explicit forms. Many sexual assault survivors suffer from eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia, which also center around control issues. In some ways, therefore, it makes more sense to look at the issue of sexual assault as an invasion of privacy:

"The more comfortable a person is with talking about invasion of privacy and in insisting that he or she has privacy that deserves respect, the clearer that person’s understanding of rape will be…" (Mclean, D. 1995)

Consequently, it is important to be aware of the approach of this subject of rape through the concept of privacy because of the historical background and the need to bypass certain stigmas.

[edit] Quotes

See quotes relating to rape

[edit] References

[edit] See also

• Causes of Rape
• Child molestation
• Rape on college campuses
• Aggression
• Femicide
• Incest
• Sexual assault
• Sexual harassment
• Sydney gang rapes
• trafficking in human beings
• rape culture
• rape pornography
• Violence against women
• anti-rape female condom
• rape (word)
• history of rape
• laws about rape
• types of rape
• rape by gender
• effects of rape and aftermath
• some aspects of rape
• rape and punishment
• rapists
• Rape reporting
• There is an ongoing problem with sexual assault in the U.S. military which has resulted in a series of scandals which have received extensive media coverage.
  • Tailhook scandal
  • Assaults on trainees at Aberdeen, MD, 1996
  • Air Force Academy sexual assault scandal

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Academic and reference books

Reference books

• Smith, M. D. (2004). Encyclopedia of Rape. USA: Greenwood Press.
• Macdonals, John (1993). World Book Encyclopedia. United States of America: World Book Inc.
• Kahn, Ada. (1992). The A-Z of women's sexuality : a concise encyclopedia. Alameda, Calif.: Hunter House.
• The Columbia encyclopedia. Sixth edition, 2001-04.
• Leonard, Arthur S. (1993). Sexuality and the law : an encyclopedia of major legal cases. New York : Garland Pub
• Kazdin, Alan E. (2000). Encyclopedia of psychology. Washington, D.C. : American Psychological Association ; Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press
• Sedney, Mary Anne, "rape (crime)." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006 <http://gme.grolier.com>
• Kittleson, M., Harper, J., & Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). The Truth About Rape. USA: Facts on File

Secondary victimization and victim blame

• Lamb, Sharon, The Trouble with Blame: Victims, Perpetrators and Responsibility, Harvard Univ Press, 1999.
• Madigan, L. and Gamble, N. (1991). The Second Rape: Society's Continued Betrayal of the Victim. New York: Lexington Books.
• Murray JD, Spadafore JA, McIntosh WD. (2005) Belief in a just world and social perception: evidence for automatic activation. J Soc Psychol. Feb;145(1):35-47.
• Frese, B., Moya, M., & Megius, J. L. (2004). Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of Situational Factors. Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence, 19(2), 143-161.
• Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B)
• Blumberg, M. & Lester, D. (1991). High school and college students' attitudes toward rape. Adolescence, 26(103), 727-729.
• Shaver, . (2002). Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim gender and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2)
• Anderson , K. J. & Accomando, C. (1999). Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary. Women & Language, 1, 24-28.
• The effect of participant sex, victim dress, and traditional attitudes on causal judgments for marital rape victims. (Author Abstract). Mark A. Whatley. Journal of Family Violence 20.3 (June 2005): p191(10).
• Kay, Aaron C., Jost, John T. & Young, Sean (2005) Victim Derogation and Victim Enhancement as Alternate Routes to System Justification. Psychological Science 16 (3), 240-246.

Self blame

• Tangney, June Price and Dearing, Ronda L., Shame and Guilt, The Guilford Press, 2002
• Matsushita-Arao, Yoshiko. (1997). Self-blame and depression among forcible rape survivors. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. 57(9-B). pp. 5925.
• Branscombe, Nyla R.; Wohl, Michael J. A.; Owen, Susan; Allison, Julie A.; N'gbala, Ahogni. (2003). Counterfactual Thinking, Blame Assignment, and Well-Being in Rape Victims. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 25 (4). p265, 9p.
• Frazier, Patricia A.; Mortensen, Heather; Steward, Jason. (2005). Coping Strategies as Mediators of the Relations Among Perceived Control and Distress in Sexual Assault Survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, Jul2005, Vol. 52 Issue 3, p267-278

Causes of multiple victimization

• Follette et. al., (1996). Cumulative trauma: the impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. J Trauma Stress.9(1):25-35.
• Sarkar, N. N.; Sarkar, Rina, (2005). Sexual Assault on a Woman: Its Impact on Her Life and Living in Society. Sexual & Relationship Therapy. 20 (4), 407-419
• Parillo, K., Robert C. Freeman, & Paul Young. (2003) Association Between Child Sexual Abuse and Sexual Revictimization in Adulthood Among Women Sex Partners of Injection Drug Users. Violence and Victims. 18(4): 473-484.
• Shields, N. & Hanneke, C. (1988). Multiple Sexual Victimization: The Case of Incest and Marital Rape. In G. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. Kirkpatrick, & M. Strauss (Eds), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research. (pp. 255-269). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• Sorenson SB, Siegel JM, Golding JM, Stein JA. (1991). Repeated sexual victimization.

Violence Vict. Winter;6(4):299-308.

Male survivors

• Dorais, Michel, Don't Tell: The Sexual Abuse of Boys, McGill-Queen Univ Press, 2002.
• Mezey, Gillian, and King, Michael, Male Victims of Sexual Assault, Oxford, 2000.

Theories

• Anderson, Peter and Struckman-Johnson Cindy, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998.
• Harris, Grant, et al, The Causes of Rape: Understanding Individual Differences in Male Propensity for Sexual Aggression, American Psychological Association, 2005.
• "Psychosexual Disorders." Section 15, Chapter 192 in The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy , edited by Mark H. Beers, MD, and Robert Berkow, MD. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories, 2002.
• Brownmiller, Susan: Against Our Will : Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1975.
• Gavey, Nicola, Just Sex: The Cultural Scaffolding of Rape, Routledge, 2005.
• Scruton, Roger, Sexual Desire: A Moral Philoshopy of the Erotic, Free, 1986.
• Ellis, Lee, Theories of Rape: Inquiries Into the Causes of Rape, Hemisphere, 1989.
• McDonald, John, Rape: Controversial Issues: Criminal Profiles, Date Rape, False Reports, and False Memories, Charles C Thomas, 1995.
• Cothran, Helen, Sexual Violence: Opposing Viewpoints, Thompson Gale, 2003.
• Holmes, Ronald and Steven, Current Perspectives on Sex Crimes, Sage, 2002.
• Emilie Buchwald, Pamela Fletcher, Martha Roth (ed.), Transforming a Rape Culture, Milkweed Editions, 2005.
• Kanin, Eugene J. (1994). False Rape Allegations. Archives of Sexual Behavior.
• Sarah Projansky, Watching Rape: Film and Television in Postfeminist Culture, New York University Press 2001
• Thornhill, Randy and Palmer, Craig T. A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. MIT Press, 2001.
• Roussel, D.E. and R. Bolen. (2000). The Epidemic of Rape and Child Sexual Abuse in the United States. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Mclean, D. (1995). Privacy and its invasion. CT: Praeger.
• Margulis, Stephen T., (2003). Privacy as a social issue and behavioral concept. Journal of social issues 59(2):243-261
• Pedersen, DM (1997) Psychological functions of privacy. Journal Of Environmental Psychology, 17:147-156

Child rape and child sexual assault

• Levesque, Roger, Sexual Abuse of Children, Indiana Univ Press, 1999.
• Pryor, Douglass, W. Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children, New York University Press, 1996.

Female Sex Offenders

• Pearson, Patricia, When She Was Bad: Violent Women and the Myth of Innocence, Viking Adult, 1997.
• Adams, Ken, Silently Seduced: When Parents Make their Children Partners-Understanding Covert Incest, HCI, 1991.
• Anderson, Peter B., and Struckman-Johnson Cindy, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998.
• Kierski, Werner, Female Violence: Can We Therapists Face Up to it?, Counseling and Psychotherapy Journal, 12/2002.
• Rosencrans, Bobbie, The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers, Safer Society, 1997.
• Miletski, Hani, Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo, Safer Society, 1999.
• Elliot, Michelle, Female Sexual Abuse of Children, Guilford, 1994
• Hislop, Julia, Female Sex Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement and Child Protective Services Need to Know, Issues Press, 2001.

Non-human rape

• Gowaty, P.A. and N. Buschhaus. (1997). Functions of aggressive and forced copulations in birds: female resistance and the CODE hypothesis. American Zoologist (in press)

[edit] Others

• Doe, Jane. The Real Story of Jane Doe. Toronto: Random House, 2003.

• Gavin de Becker. The Gift of Fear. ISBN 0440226198, (recognising and handling dangerous people and situations)

• Ghiglieri, Michael P. (1999). The Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Violence. USA: Perseus Books.

• McElroy, Wendy, (2001). Sexual Correctness: The Gender-Feminist Attack on Women, McFarland.

• McKibbin, W.F., Shackelford, T.K., Goetz, A.T., & Starratt, V.G. (2008). Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective. Review of General Psychology, 12, 86-97. Full text

• Alice Sebold Lucky: A Memoir ([2002]) ISBN 0316096199 (author recounts her own rape at the age of 18)

[edit] External links

[edit] Research resources on sexual assault and rape

• RAINN - The Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network
• Rape Crisis Information Pathfinder - Find journal articles, statistics and online resources on rape and sexual assault. Includes male survivor information
• AARDVARC: An Abuse, Rape, and Domestic Violence Aid and Resource Collection - includes male survivor information
• National Criminal Justice Reference Service article database
• Sexual Violence Facts from the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
• The History of Rape: A Bibliography
• Male Survivor: Overcoming Sexual Victimization of Boys and Men
• MenWeb: Male Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse
• Sexual Violence Research Initiative
• Dispatches from the Front Lines- current events articles

Statistics on sexual violence and reporting

• Rape and Sexual Assault Statistics from Government Sources
• US Department of Justice: Incident-Based Statistics (new, non-uniform and incomplete)
• FBI's Uniform Crime Reports (non-uniform sources and discriminates against male rape victims)
• Probability statistics compiled by NCPA from US Department of Justice statistics
• Group Says FBI Report Overlooks Prison Rape Statistics
• Child Sexual Abuse, Real and Unreal
• Issues: Statistics are not always accurate or cited properly
• Rape statistics not crystal clear

Definitions of rape and sexual assault

• Encyclopedias, Dictionaries and Reference Books on Rape and Sexual Assault

Message boards for rape survivors

• A directory of message boards for rape survivors
• Pandora's Aquarium - Message board for victims of sexual assault which has a male survivor forum
• After Silence - Message board for survivors of rape and sexual abuse
• Beneath My Facade - a message board for survivors of rape, sexual abuse, domestic abuse & dissociative identity disorder
• Support group for male survivors from Hope for Healing (a faith based group)
• Male Survivor has a support board
• Support forum for people conceived by rape

Marital/Intimate partner rape links

• Aphrodite Wounded
• About.com Marital Rape
• "Just Keeping the Peace" 2004 Study on Intimate Partner Rape
• National Clearinghouse on Marital and Date Rape
• StopVAW Intimate Partner Sexual Assault Page
• Hidden Hurt
• For better or worse: the case of marital rape

Non-stereotypical sexual assault

• Our Endangered Species; A Hard Look at How We Treat Children
• Double Standard: The Bias Against Male Victims of Sexual Abuse
• The Incest Loophole
• Abuse Cases Face Double Standard
• Sexual Assault of Children by Females
• Bullying in the Family
• Articles on Sexual Abuse Steoreotypes

Female-female rape links

• Mother-Daughter Sexual Abuse: A Painful Topic
• Lesbian Sexual Assault, Rape and LGBTQ Domestic Violence
• LGBTQ DV hotline is 1-617-423-7233 and the Gay & Lesbian National Hotline is 1-888-THE-GLNH
• The Survivor Project
• The Northwest Network
• Gay resources from aardvarc
• Female-Female Abuse

Male-male and female-male rape links

• Inside the Mind of a Female Sex Offender
• Take Care of Your Mother - Or Else
• Revenge: A Dish Best Served Cold
• Male Survivor - Overcoming Sexual Victimization Of Boys and Men
• Male Sexual Abuse Victims of Female Perpetrators: Society's Betrayal of Boys
• Female Sexual Offenders
• Female Sex Offenders
• Male sexual assault survivors

LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer)

• LGBTQ and lesbian sexual assault resources

Victim blame

• Victim Blame: A Bibliography
• "The Legal Bias Against Rape Victims (The Rape of Mr. Smith)" - excerpt from an April 1975 American Bar Association Journal article
• Secondary victimization
• Hate crimes against RTS disability
• False Rape Allegations by Dr. Eugene Kanin
• Findlaw article on false rape allegations

Self blame

• Self blame research

Politics of rape

• The New Mythology of Rape: Politicizing Women's Pain

Sexual assault awareness raising for victim's rights

• The Invisible Community
• Women's week activities - awareness raising
• The Vagina Monologues
• The White Ribbon Campaign
• Male Responsibility For Rape And Rape Awareness
• Reversal of Fortune: The Rape of Men By Women

Emerging and controversial research topics

• Eroticized Rage and Other Sexualized Feelings
• Women Who Rape
• Articles on Female Sexual Offenders
• Sibling Sexual Abuse: An Emerging Awareness of an Ignored Childhood Trauma
• Drink spiking - a reality or urban myth?
• Research on the link between eating disorders and sexual assault

Drugs and alcohol in rape

• NIDA InfoFacts: Rohypnol and GHB - NIDA website.
• NCJRS
• Findlaw - intoxication and the legal definition of rape.
• Beyond 'drink spiking': drug and alcohol facilitated sexual assault, November 2003, Briefing from the Australian Institute of Family Studies
• DEA
• Drink-spike victims had one too many Australian study finding the vast majority of "drink spike" victims were actually only heavily intoxicated or under the influence of drugs taken voluntarily (not GHB).

Miscellaneous

• Cultural Diversity
• Stop Prisoner Rape
• Police and law enforcement training manuals for sexual assault, rape and domestic violence
• College and fraternity rape
• British Sexual Offences Act 2003
• BBC - Sex trade's reliance on forced labour

This page uses content from the English-language version of Wikipedia. The original article was at Rape. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with Psychology Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License.