Professional supervision

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Supervision is used in counselling, psychotherapy and other mental health disciplines as well as many other professions engaged in working with people. It consists of the practitioner meeting regularly with another professional, not necessarily more senior, but normally with training in the skills of supervision, to discuss casework and other professional issues in a structured way. This is often known as clinical or counselling supervision or consultation. The purpose is to assist the practitioner to learn from his or her experience and progress in expertise, as well as to ensure good service to the client or patient.

Clinical supervision is used by many other professions in health services and all therapists are now expected to have regular clinical supervision. C. Waskett (2006) has written on the application of solution focused supervision skills to either counselling or clinical supervision work.

Practising members of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy[1] are bound to have supervision for at least 1.5 hours a month. Students and trainees must have it at a rate of one hour for every eight hours of client contact.

The concept is also well used in psychology, social work, the probation service and other workplaces.

Benefits of supervision

Main article: Benefits of clinical supervision

Modes of supervision

Supervision sessions can be conducted in a number of different ways eg in individual or group setting

Main article: Modes of clinical supervision

Models or approaches to supervision

There are many different ways of developing supervision skills which can be helpful to the clinician or practitioner in their work. Specific models or approaches to both counselling supervision and clinical supervision come from different historical strands of thinking and beliefs about relationships between people.

Main article: Models of clinical supervision

Ethical guidelines for supervisors

Because of the special nature of the supervisory relationship it is important that all supervisors are aware of and follow the ethical guidelines of their professional bodies

Main article: Ethical guidelines for supervisors

Training of clinical supervisors

Supervision has become an area of growing importance for clinical training programmes

Main article: Training of clinical supervisors

See also

• Professional supervision

Bibliography

Key texts – Books

• Bramley, W Supervisory Couple in Broad Spectrum Psychotherapy.Free Association Books. ISBN 1853433535
• Carroll, M. and Tholstrup, M. (2001) (eds).Integrative Approaches to Supervision.Jessica Kingsley Publishers ISBN 1853029661
• Carroll, M (1996) Counselling supervision: Theory, skills and practice. London: Cassell.
• Carroll, .M. & Gilbert, ,M. (2005)). On being a supervisee: Creating learning partnerships. London: Vukani Publications.
• Fleming, I. & Steen. L. (2004). Supervision and clinical psychology. Hove: Routledge.
• Hawkins,P & Shohet, R (2003). Supervision in the Helping Professions: an organisational, group and organisational approach; Open University Press, Maidenhead, 2nd ed. ISBN 0335201172
• Hess, A.K. (1980). Psychotherapy supervision. New York:Wiley.
• Inskipp,F * Proctor,B. (1993). The Art, craft and tasks of Counselling supervision, Part 1 – making the most of supervision, Cascade Publications ,
• Inskipp,F * Proctor,B. (1995). The Art, craft and tasks of Counselling supervision Part 2 – becoming a supervisor.
• Page,S & Wosket,V. (1995) Supervising the Counsellor: a Cyclical Model; Routledge, London & New York,
• Watkins, C.E. (1997). Handbook of psychotherapy supervision.

New York: Wiley.

Key texts – Papers

• British Psychological Society (2002) Criteria for the accreditation of postgraduate training courses in clinical psychology: Guidelines on Clinical supervision. Leicester: British Psychological Society.
• Carroll, M (2007) Clinical psychology supervision. Clinical Psychology Forum, 174,35-37
• Division of Clinical Psychology (2003) Policy guidelines on supervision in the practice of clinical psychology. Leicester: British Psychological Society.
• Milne, D. & James, I. (2000). A systematic review of effective cognitive behavioural supervision. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 111–127.
• Milne, D. & James, I. (2002). The observed impact of training on competence in clinical supervision. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 55–72.
• Milne, D. & Westerman, C. (2001). Evidence bases clinical supervision: Rational and illustration.Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 8,444–457.
• Alpher, V. (1991) Interdependence and parallel processes: a case study of structural analysis of social behavior in supervision and short-term dynamic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy. 28 218-231.
• Bahrick, A., Russell, R., & Salmi, S. (1991) The effects of role induction on trainees’ perceptions of supervision. Journal of Counseling and Development. 69 434-438
• Bambling M., & King R., (2000) Supervision and the development of counselor competency. Psychotherapy in Australia. 6 4 58-63
• Bernard, J., & Goodyear, R. (1992) Fundamentals of clinical supervision. Allyn & Bacon: Boston.
• Bernstein, B., & Lecomte, C. (1979) Supervisory type feedback effects: feedback discrepancy level, trainee psychological differentiation, and immediate responses. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 26 295-303.
• Binder, J., & Strupp, H. (1997) Supervision of psychodynamic psychotherapies. In Watkins (ed) Handbook of Psychotherapy supervision. New York: Wiley & Sons. Ch 4.
• Bordin, E. S. (1983) A working alliance based model of supervision. The Counseling Psychologist. 11 1 35-42.
• Burke, W., Goodyear, R., & Guzzard, C. (1998) Weakening and repairs in the supervisory alliance: a multiple case study. American Journal of Psychotherapy. 52 450-462.
• Carey, J., Williams, K., & Wells, M. (1988) Relationships between dimensions of supervisors influence and counsellor trainees performance. Counsellor Education and Supervision. 28 130-139.
• Casement, P., (1993) Towards autonomy: some thoughts on psychoanalytic supervision. Journal of Clinical Psychoanalysis. 2 389 - 403.
• Cook, D., & Helms, J. (1988) Visible racial/ethnic group supervisees satisfaction with cross-cultural supervision as predicted by relationship characteristics. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 35 268-274.
• Dodenhoff, J. (1981) Interpersonal attraction and direct-indirect supervisor influence as predictors of counselor trainee effectiveness. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 28 47-52.
• Doehrman, J. (1976). Parallel processes in supervision and psychotherapy. Bulletin of the Menniger Clinic. 40 1-104.
• Efstation, J., Patton, M., & Kardash, C. (1990) Measuring the working alliance in counsellor supervision. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 37 322-329.
• Ellis, M., Dell,D., & Good, G. (1988) Counselor trainees’ perceptions of supervisor roles: two studies testing the dimensionality of supervision. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 35 315-334.
• Ellis, M., & Landany, N. (1997) Inferences concerning supervisees and clients in clinical supervision: an integrative review. In C.E. Watkins, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of psychotherapy supervision. 447-507.
• Ellis, M., Landany,N., Krengel, M., & Schult, D. (1996) Clinical supervision research from 1981 to 1993: a methodological critique. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 43 35-50.
• Finn, R. (1970) A note on estimating the reliability of categorical data. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 30 71 – 76.
• Foreman, S., & Marmar, R. C. (1985) Therapist actions that address initially poor therapeutic alliances in psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 4 922-926.
• Fortune, A., & Abramson, J. (1993) Predictor of satisfaction with field practicum among social work students, The Clinical Supervisor. 11 1 95-110.
• Friedlander, M., Keller, K., Peca-Baker, T. & Olk, M. (1986) Effects of role conflict on counsellor trainees self - statements, anxiety level and performance. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 33 1-5.
• Friedlander, M., Siegel, S. & Brenock, K. (1989) Parallel process in counselling and supervision: a case study. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 36 149-157.
• Friedlander, M., & Synder, J. (1983) Trainees expectations for the supervisory process. Counselor Education and Supervision. 23 342-348.
• Friedlander, M., & Ward, G. (1984). Development and validation of the supervisor styles inventory. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 31 541-557.
• Gandolfo, R., & Brown, R. (1987) Psychology interns ratings of actual and ideal supervision of psychotherapy. The Journal of Training and Practice in Professional Psychology. 1 1 15-28.
• Garfield, S., & Kurtz, R. (1976) Clinical psychologists in the 1970s. American Psychologist. 31 1-9.
• Goodyear, R., & Guzzardo, C. (2000) Psychotherapy supervision and training. Handbook of Counseling Psychology (3rd ed.); Brown, D. (Ed). New York; Wiley & Sons. 83-108.
• Handley, P. (1982) Relationship between supervisors’ and trainees’ cognitive styles and the supervision process. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 29 508-515.
• Harkness, D., & Hensley, H. (1991) Changing the focus of social work supervision: effects on client satisfaction and generalized contentment. Social Work. 36 506-512.
• Heppner, P., & Handley, P. (1982) The relationship between supervisory expertness, attractiveness, or trustworthiness. Counsellor Education and Supervision. 22 23-31.
• Heppner, P., & Roehlke, J. (1984) Differences among supervisees at different levels of training: implications for a developmental model of supervision. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 31 76-90.
• Hess, A. (1987) Psychotherapy supervision: stages and a theory of relationship. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 18 251-259.
• Hilton, D., Russell, R., & Salmi, S. (1995) The effects of supervisor’s race and level of support on perceptions of supervision. Journal of Counseling and Development. 7 3 559-563.
• Holloway, E., (1996) Supervision: its contributions to treatment efficacy. In Talbott, J. (Ed) Yearbook of psychiatry & applied mental health. 4 134-135.
• Holloway, E., (1992) Supervision: a way of teaching and learning. In Brown, S., & Lent, R. (Eds) Handbook of counselling psychology. John Wiley & Sons. Ch 6.
• Holloway, E., & Hosford, R. (1983) Towards a prescriptive technology of counselor supervision. The Counseling Psychologist. 11 (1) 73-77.
• Holloway, E., & Neufeldt, S. (1995) Supervision: its contribution to treatment efficacy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 63 207-213. 180
• Hutt, C., Scott, J., & King, M. (1983) A phenomenological study of supervisees’ positive and negative experiences in supervision. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice. 20 118-123.
• Kavanagh, D., Bennett-Levy E., & Crow, N. (2002) A cognitive-behavioral approach to supervision. In McMahon & Patton (Eds.) Supervision in the Helping Professions: a Practical Approach, Pearson Education Australia. 131-141.
• Kennard, B., Stewart, S., & Gluck, M., (1987) The supervision relationship: variables contributing to positive versus negative experiences. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 18 172-175.
• Kivlighan, D., Angelone, E., & Swafford, K. (1991) Live supervision in individual psychotherapy: effects on therapists’ intention use and client’s evaluation of session effect and working alliance. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 22 6 489-495.
• Landany, N, Brittan-Powell, C.S., & Pannu, R.K. (1997) The influence of supervisory racial identity interaction and racial matching on the supervisory working alliance and supervisee multicultural competence. Counselor Education and Supervision, 36 305-317. 183
• Lambert, M., & Ogles, B. (1997) The effectiveness of psychotherapy supervision. In Watkins, C., Jr. (Ed) Handbook of psychotherapy supervision. New York, John Wiley & Sons. Ch 24.
• Landany, N., Brittan-Powell, C., & Pannu, R. (1997) The influence of supervisory racial identity interaction and racial matching on the supervisory working alliance and supervisee multicultural competence. Counselor Education and Supervision. 36 305-317.
• Landany, N., & Friedlander, M. (1995) The relationship between the supervisory working alliance and trainees’ experience of role conflict and role ambiguity. Counselor Education and Supervision. 34 220-231.
• Landany, N., Walker, J., & Melincoff, D. (2000) Supervisory style: its relation to the supervisory working alliance and supervisor self-disclosure. Counselor Education and Supervision. 38 215-225.
• Lane, R., (1990) Psychoanalytic approaches to supervision. Brunner/Mazel. New York, NY.
• Linehan, M., (1980) Supervision of behavior therapy. In Hess A, (Ed) Psychotherapy Supervision: Theory, Research and Practice. New York: Wiley. Ch 13.
• Litterll, J., Lee-Borden, N., & Lorenz, J. (1979) A developmental framework for counselling supervision. Counsellor Education and Supervision. 19 13-19.

Loganbill, C., Hardy, E., & Delworth, U. (1982) Supervision: a conceptual model. The Counselling Psychologist. 10 1 3-42.

• Lowe, C., & McLeod, M. (1985) Role of supervision in assuring quality mental health services in university counseling centers. ProfessionalPsychology: Research and Practice. 16 898-901.
• Martin, J., Goodyear, R., & Newton, F. (1987) Clinical supervisions: an intensive case study. Professional Psychology: Rresearch and Practice. 18 225-235.
• McNeill, B., Stoltenberg, C., & Romans, J. (1992) The integrated developmental model of supervision: scale development and validation procedures. Professional psychology: Research and Practice. 23 504-508.
• McNeill, B., Stoltenberg, C., & Pierce, R. (1985) Supervisees’ perceptions of their development: a test of the counselor complexity model. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 32 630-633.
• McRoy, R., Freeman, E., Logan, S., & Blackmon, B. (1986) Cross-cultural field supervision: implications for social work education. Journal of Social Work Education. 22 50-56.
• Moskowitiz, S., & Rupert, P. (1983) Conflict resolution within the supervisory relationship. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 14 632-641.
• Nelson, M., & Holloway, E. (1990) Relation of gender to power and involvement in supervision. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 37 473-481.
• Olk, M., & Friedlander, M. (1992) Trainees’ experience of role conflict and role ambiguity in supervisory relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 39 389-397.
• Patton, M., & Kivlighan, D. Jr. (1997) Relevance of the supervisory alliance to the counseling alliance and to treatment adherence in counselor training. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 44 149-154.
• Putney, M., Worthington, E Jr., & McCullough, M. (1992) Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation and supervisor- supervisee matching on interns’ perceptions of supervision. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 39 258-264. 190
• Rickards, L. (1984) Verbal interaction and supervisor perception in counselor supervision. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 31 262- 265.
• Rotholz, T., & Werk, A. (1984) Student supervision: an educational process. The Clinical Supervison. 2 15-27.
• Schacht, J., Howe, E Jr., & Berman, J. (1988) A short form of the barrett-lennard relationship inventory of supervisor relationships. Psychological Reports. 63 699-706.
• Schacht, J., Howe, E Jr., & Berman, J. (1989) Supervisor facilitative conditions and effectiveness as perceived by thinking - and feeling - type supervisees. Psychotherapy. 26 475 - 483.
• Sells, J., Goodyear, R., Lichtenberg, J., & Polkinghorne A. (1997) Relationship of supervisor and trainee gender and client severity to in session verbal behavior, session impact, trainee ratings. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 44 406-412.
• Serlin J., & Lapsley S. (1985) Supervisees and clients. In Watkins (ed) (1997), Handbook of Psychotherapy supervision. New York: Wiley & Sons. Ch 3.
• Shanfield, B., Matthews,L., & Hetherely, V. (1993) What do excellent psychotherapy supervisors do? American Journal of Psychiatry. 150 1081-1084.
• Steven, D., Goodyear, R., & Robertson, P. (1998) Supervisor development: an exploratory study in changes in stance and emphasis. Clinical supervisor. 16 2 73-88.
• Stoltenberg, C., & Delworth, U. (1987) Supervising counsellors and therapists: a developmental approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Stoltenberg, C. (1997) The integrated developmental model of supervision: supervision across levels. Psychotherapy in Private Practice. 16 2 59-69.
• Strozier, A., Kivlighan, D., & Thoreson, R. (1993) Supervisor intentions, supervisee reactions and helpfulness: a case study of the process of supervision. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 1 13-19.
• Talen, M., & Schindler, N. (1993) Goal-directed supervision plans: a model of trainee supervision and evaluation. The Clinical Supervisor. 11 2 77-88.
• Tracey, T., & Sherry, P. (1993) Complementary interaction over time in successful and less successful supervision. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 24. 304-311.
• Usher, C., & Borders, L. (1993) Practicing counselors’ preferences for supervisory style and supervisory emphasis. Counselor Education and Supervision. 33 66-79.
• Vander Kolk, C. (1974) The relationship of personality, values, and race to anticipation of the supervisory relationship. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 18 41-46.
• Wampold, B., & Holloway, E. (1997) Methodology, design, and evaluation in psychotherapy supervision research. Watkins, C. Edward Jr. (Ed). (1997). Handbook of Psychotherapy Supervision. 11-27 651.
• Warner, K. (1999) The role of perceived gender related personality traits in initial supervisory relationships. Dissertation abstracts international. 60 4-B 1904
• Watkins, E. (1998) Psychotherapy supervision in the 21st century; some pressing needs and impressing possibilities. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. 7 2 28-44.
• Williams, E., Judge, A., Hill, C., & Hoffman, M. (1997) Experiences of novice therapists in prepracticum: trainees’, clients’, and supervisors’ perceptions of therapists’ personal reactions and management strategies. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 44 390-399.
• Winter, M., & Holloway, E. (1992) Relation of trainee experience, conceptual level and supervisior approach to selection of audiotaped counseling passages. The Clinical Supervisor. 9 2 87-103.
• Worthington, E. (1987) Changes in supervision as counsellors and supervisors gain experience: A review. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 18 189-209.
• Worthington, E Jr., & Stern, A. (1985) Effects of supervisor and supervisee degree level and gender on the supervisory relationship. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 32 252-262.

Additional material - Papers

• Waskett, C The pluses of solution-focused supervision. , Vol 6, No 1.
• Waskett, C (2006) The SF Journey, in Therapy Today, March , Vol 17, No 2, pp 40-42

External links

The pluses of solution-focused supervision