Changes: Pluralism

Latest revision as of 07:37, 27 April 2007

Pluralism in psychology may apply in different ways, across a wide range of topics:

In science, the concept often describes the view that several methods, theories or points of view are legitimate or plausible, see Scientific pluralism.
For the political philosophical ideal, see Pluralism (political philosophy).
In philosophy, see Pluralism (metaphysics)
In ethical theory, see Value pluralism.
As it relates to the diversity of religions, see religious pluralism.
In cultural studies, see Cultural pluralism.

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+'''Pluralism''' in psychology may apply in different ways, across a wide range of topics:
-{{PhilPsy}}
-'''Pluralism''' is, in the general sense, the affirmation and acceptance of [[diversity]]. The concept is used, often in different ways, in a wide range of issues. In [[politics]], the affirmation of diversity in the interests and beliefs of the citizenry, is one of the most important features of modern [[democracy]]. In [[science]], the concept often describes the view that several methods, theories or points of view are legitimate or plausible. This attitude may arguably be a key factor to scientific progress. The term ''pluralism'' is also used, in several different senses, in the context of [[religion]] and [[philosophy]].
+*In [[science]], the concept often describes the view that several methods, theories or points of view are legitimate or plausible, see [[Scientific pluralism]].
-:''For pluralism as a concept in the [[philosophy of mind]], opposed to [[monism]] and [[dualism]] see [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)]]''
+*For the [[political philosophy|political philosophical]] ideal, see [[Pluralism (political philosophy)]].
+*In [[philosophy]], see [[Pluralism (metaphysics)]]
+*In [[ethics|ethical]] theory, see [[Value pluralism]].
+*As it relates to the diversity of religions, see [[religious pluralism]].
+*In [[cultural studies]], see [[Cultural pluralism]].
-:''For pluralism in [[ethics|ethical]] theory, see [[value-pluralism]]''
-:''For pluralism in regard to the possibility of extraterrestrial life, see [[cosmic pluralism]]''
-:''For pluralism in the sense of holding multiple ecclesiastical offices, see [[benefice]]''
-:''For pluralism as it relates to the diversity of religions, see [[religious pluralism]]''
-== Pluralism in politics ==
-In [[democracy|democratic]] [[politics]], pluralism is a guiding [[principle]] which permits the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles. Unlike [[totalitarianism]] or [[particularism]], pluralism ''acknowledges'' the ''diversity'' of interests and considers it imperative that members of society accommodate their differences by engaging in good-faith negotiation.
-One of the earliest arguments for pluralism came from [[James Madison]] in [[The Federalist Papers]] 10. Madison feared that faction would lead to in-fighting in the new American republic and devotes this paper to questioning how best to avoid such an occurrence. He posits that in order to avoid faction it is best to have many competing factions to prevent any one dominating the political system. This relies, to a degree, on a series of disturbances changing the influences of groups so as to avoid institutional dominance and ensure competition.
-There are some objections to this model of pluralism however. Critics argue that groups need a high level of resources and the support of patrons in order to be able to contend for influence and this observation formed the basis for the theory of [[elite pluralism]] which was advanced by writers such as [[Elmer Eric Schattschneider]] who wrote that 'all groups sing with an upper-class bias'.
-===Pluralism and the common good===
-Pluralism is connected with the hope that this process of [[conflict]] and [[dialogue]] will lead to a definition and subsequent realization of the ''[[common good]]'' that is best for all members of society. This implies that in a pluralistic framework, the common good is not given ''[[a priori]]''. Instead, the scope and content of the common good can only be found out in and after the process of negotiation ([[a posteriori]]).
-Consequently, the common good does not, according to pluralists, coincide with the position of any one cohesive group or organization.
-Still, one group may eventually manage to establish its own view as the generally accepted view, but only as the result of the negotiation process within the pluralistic framework. This implies that, as a general rule, the "operator" of a truly pluralistic framework, i.e. the state in a pluralistic society, must not be ''[[bias|biased]]'': it may not take sides with any one group, give undue privileges to one group and discriminate against another one.
-Proponents of pluralism argue that this negotiation process is the best way to achieve the common good: since everyone can participate in power and decision-making (and can claim part of the ownership of the results of exercising power) there can also be widespread participation and a greater feeling of commitment from society members, and therefore better outcomes. By contrast, an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] or [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] society, where [[political power|power]] is concentrated and decisions are made by few members, forestalls this possibility.
-Proponents in contemporary political philosophy of such a view include [[Isaiah Berlin]], [[Stuart Hampshire]] and [[Bernard Williams]]. And earlier version of political pluralism was a strong current in the formation of modern [[social democracy]], with theorists such as [[Harold Laski]] and [[G. D. H. Cole]], as well as other leading members of the British [[Fabian Society]].
-Note, however, that political philosophers such as [[Charles Blattberg]] have argued that negotiation can at best compromise rather than realise the common good. Doing the latter is said to require engaging in "conversation" instead, room for which is made within what Blattberg calls a patriotic, as distinct from pluralist, politics.
-===Conditions for pluralism ===
-For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus regarding  shared values, which tie the different groups to society, and shared rules for conflict resolution between the groups:
-The most important value is that of mutual [[respect]] and [[tolerance]], so that different groups can coexist and interact without anyone being forced to [[assimilation (sociology)|assimilate]] to anyone else's position in conflicts that will naturally arise out of diverging interests and positions. These conflicts can only be resolved durably by [[dialogue]] which leads to [[compromise]] and to mutual understanding.
-=== Pluralism and Subsidiarity ===
-However, the necessary consensus on rules and values should not unnecessarily limit different groups and individuals within society in their value decisions. According to the principle of [[subsidiarity]], everything that need not be regulated within the general framework should be left to decide for subordinate groups and, in turn, to individuals so as to guarantee them a maximum amount of freedom.
-In ultimate consequence, pluralism thus also implies the right for individuals to determine [[values]] and [[truth]]s for themselves instead of being forced to follow the whole of society or, indeed, their own group.
-== Pluralism in the scientific community ==
-It can be argued that the pluralistic nature of the scientific process is a major factor in the rapid growth of knowledge. In turn, an increase in knowledge arguably leads to increased human welfare due to, for example, greater [[productivity]], [[economic growth]] and better medical [[technology]].
-{{expansion}}
-== Pluralism in philosophy ==
-Pluralism in philosophy is another name for the [[marketplace of ideas]]. Theoretically, many different schools of thought will influence each other, which may eventually lead to a more advanced and logical way of thinking.  See [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Dualism]].
-{{expansion}}
-== Legal Pluralism ==
-Basic thought:
-* many things that lack the formal status law fulfill a similar function
-* unwritten rules
-* should these be considered as "law" as well?
-Legal Pluralism allows for moral laws that are unwritten as formal laws. These laws include religious accommodations that are unjustified to receive a full pedigree and hence in the eyes of a positivist, law.
-Sources of such pluralist laws include the Koran, Sunna, Ijma ... whereas most modern western nation-states take the basis of their legal system from the Christian superpowers of old (i.e. Britain, France, etc), which is also why moral laws found in the Bible have actually been made fully-fledged laws, with the initial grund-norm set far back in legal history, hence fulfilling the priority of both the positivists and the naturalists.
-{{expansion}}
 == See also ==
+* [[Global Centre for Pluralism]] in [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]]
-* [[Cultural pluralism]]
-* [[Religious pluralism]]
-* [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)]]
-* [[Value-pluralism]]
-* [[Polyarchy]]
-* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
-* [[Liberal democracy]]
-* [[Particularism]]
-* [[Progressive Christianity]]
-== References ==
-In [[epistemology]] and [[ontology]]:
-* ''A Pluralistic Universe'', [[William James|James, William]] (1909).
-In [[political philosophy]] and [[ethics]]:
-* ''Morality and Conflict'', [[Hampshire, Stuart]] (1983).
-* ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics'', [[Charles Blattberg|Blattberg, Charles]] (2000).
-* ''Liberty'', [[Isaiah Berlin|Berlin, Isaiah]] (2002).
-* ''In the Beginning Was the Deed'', [[Williams, Bernard]] (2005).
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-[[Category:Pluralism|Pluralism]]
+{{ disambig }}
-[[bg:Плурализъм]]
-[[de:Pluralismus]]
-[[fr:Pluralisme]]
-[[id:Pluralisme]]
-[[it:Pluralismo]]
-[[he:פלורליזם]]
-[[lt:Pliuralizmas (tarptautiniai santykiai)]]
-[[hu:Pluralizmus]]
-[[nl:Pluralisme]]
-[[no:Pluralisme]]
-[[pl:Pluralizm]]
-[[sr:Плурализам]]
-[[fi:Pluralismi (sosiaalitieteet)]]
-[[sv:Pluralism]]
-[[vi:Đa nguyên]]
-[[yi:פלארעליזם]]
-[[zh:多元]]
-{{enWP| Pluralism}}