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[[Image:Cartas Zener.svg| thumb| right| 270px| Early parapsychological research employed the use of [[Zener cards]] in experiments designed to test for possible [[telepathy| telepathic communication]].]]
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'''Parapsychology''' is a discipline that seeks to explore [[parapsychological phenomena]], the existence and causes of [[psychic]] abilities and [[Survivalism (life after death)|life after death]] using the [[scientific method]]. Laboratory and field research is conducted by privately funded laboratories and some universities around the world,<ref name="faqfile1">{{cite web|url=http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html |title=Parapsychological Association FAQ |accessdate=2007-07-02 |year=1995 |publisher=Parapsychological Association}}</ref> although there are fewer universities actively sponsoring parapsychological research today than in years past. Such research is usually published in parapsychological publications, and some articles have appeared in more mainstream journals. Experiments have included the use of [[Random number generation|random number generator]]s to test for evidence of [[precognition]] and [[psychokinesis]] with both human and animal subjects,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Schmidt, Helmut|title=Clairvoyance Tests with a Machine'|journal= Journal of Parapsychology|volume=33|year=1969|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Schmidt, Helmut|title=''PK Experiments with Animals as Subjects''|journal= Journal of Parapsychology|volume=34|year=1970|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Schmidt, Helmut|title=''PK Tests with a High Speed Random Number Generator'|journal= Journal of Parapsychology|volume=37|year=1973|pages=}}</ref> [[sense deprivation|sensory-deprivation]] and [[Ganzfeld experiment]]s to test for extrasensory perception, and research trials conducted under contract to the United States government to investigate whether [[remote viewing]] would provide useful intelligence information.
'''Parapsychology''' is the study of the evidence of mental awareness or influence of external objects without interaction from known physical means. Most objects of study fall within the realm of "mind-to-mind" influence (such as [[extra-sensory perception]], [[folie a deux]] and [[telepathy]]), "mind-to-environment" influence (such as [[psychokinesis]]) and "environment-to-mind" (such as [[ghost|hauntings]]). Collectively, these abilities are often referred to as "[[psionics]]".
 
   
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The position of many parapsychologists is that the existence of some forms of psi such as psychokinesis and ESP has good supporting evidence.<ref>http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file3.html#20 FAQ of the Parapsychological Association</ref> The greater [[scientific community]] has not accepted that there exists evidence for psychic abilities.<ref name="CaliBoard">{{cite book |last=|first=|title=Science Framework for California Public Schools|publisher=California State Board of Education|year=1990}}</ref><ref>*{{cite journal|author=[[John Archibald Wheeler|Wheeler, J. A.]]|title=''Point of View: Drive the Pseudos Out...''|journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|volume=3|year=1979|pages=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=[[Paul Kurtz|Kurtz, P.]]|title=''Is Parapsychology a Science?''|journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|volume=3|year=1978|pages=14–32}}</ref><ref>http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html FAQ of the Parapsychological Association</ref> In 1988 the [[U.S. National Academy of Sciences]] produced a report that concluded that there is "no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena."<ref name="NAS">{{cite book|author=Druckman, D. and Swets, J. A. eds.|year=1988|title=''Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories and Techniques''|publisher=National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.|page=22|isbn=0-309-07465-7}}</ref> Some science educators and scientists have called the subject [[pseudoscience]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Layton|first=David|title=Studies in Science Education|publisher=University of Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science Education|year=1974}}</ref><ref name="Carroll">[[Sean M. Carroll|Sean Carroll]] describes it as such on his blog [http://cosmicvariance.com/2008/02/14/american-association-for-the-advancement-of-pseudoscience/ ''Cosmic Variance'']</ref>{{Verify source|date=October 2008}} Psychologists such as [[Ray Hyman]], [[Stanley Krippner]], and [[James Alcock]] have criticized both the methods used and the results obtained in parapsychology, stating that methodological flaws may explain any apparent experimental successes.<ref name="prtr">{{cite web
The scientific validity of parapsychology research is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism, and is generally referred to as a [[pseudoscience]], refuted by numerous rigorous scientific studies.
 
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{{Paranormal}}
== Types of parapsychology ==
 
The phenomena in question fall into two broad groups.
 
   
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==Terminology==
[[Extra-sensory perception]] (ESP) is also known as [[anomalous cognition]], and includes [[telepathy]], [[clairvoyance]], [[clairaudience]], [[clairalience]], [[clairgustance]], [[clairsentience]], [[precognition]], [[postcognition]], [[psychometry]], and [[dream transference]].
 
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The term ''parapsychology'' was coined in or before 1889 by psychologist [[Max Dessoir]]. It was adopted by [[J.B. Rhine]] in the 1930s as a replacement for the term ''psychical research'', to indicate a significant shift toward laboratory methodologies in their work.<ref name=Melton>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychology. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> The term originates from the {{lang-el|παρά}}
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{{transl|el|''para''}}meaning "alongside", and ''[[psychology]]''. Parapsychologists call the psychic phenomena that they search for ''[[psi (parapsychology)|psi]]'', a term intended to be descriptive without implying a mechanism.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bem|first=D. J.|coauthors= Honorton, C.|year=1994|title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer|journal=[[Psychological Bulletin]]|volume=115|pages=4&ndash;18|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.4}} </ref>
   
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==History==
[[Anomalous operation]] includes [[psychokinesis]] (in the past referred to as [[telekinesis]]), [[pyrokinesis]], [[psychogenesis]], [[out-of-body experience]]s, [[astral projection]], [[near-death experience]]s, [[Medium (spirituality)|mediumship]], and [[reincarnation]].
 
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===Early psychical research===
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[[Image:Wm james.jpg|thumb|right|150px|American psychologist and philosopher [[William James]] (1842&ndash;1910) was an early psychical researcher.]]
   
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The [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR) was founded in London in 1882. The formation of the SPR was the first systematic effort to organize scientists and scholars for a critical and sustained investigation of paranormal phenomena. The early membership of the SPR included philosophers, scholars, scientists, educators and politicians, such as [[Henry Sidgwick]], [[Arthur Balfour]], Hunting, [[William Crookes]], [[Rufus Osgood Mason]] and [[Charles Richet]].<ref name="Beloff">{{cite book |last=Beloff |first=John |authorlink= |title=Handbook of parapsychology |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1977 |pages= |isbn=0442295766}}</ref>
The general term "[[psi]] phenomena" (or the somewhat older term, "psychic phenomena," which was said to be the "psi factor" in an experiment) covers all of these categories.
 
   
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The SPR classified its subjects of study into several areas: [[telepathy]], [[hypnotism]], [[Reichenbach's phenomena]], [[apparitional experiences|apparitions]], [[hauntings|haunts]], and the physical aspects of [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]] such as table-tilting and the appearance of matter from unknown sources, otherwise known as [[Materialization (paranormal)|materialization]]. One of the first collaborative efforts of the SPR was its ''Census of Hallucinations'', which researched apparitional experiences and [[hallucinations in the sane]]. The census was the Society's first attempt at a statistical evaluation of paranormal phenomena, and the resulting publication in 1886, ''Phantasms of the Living'' is still widely referenced in parapsychological literature today. The SPR became the model for similar societies in other European countries and the United States during the late 19th century. Largely due to the support of psychologist [[William James]], the [[American Society for Psychical Research]] (ASPR) opened its doors in [[New York City]] in 1885.<ref name="Berger">{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Arthur S. |authorlink= |coauthors=Berger, Joyce |title=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research |publisher=Paragon House Publishers |year=1991 |pages= |isbn=1557780439}}</ref>
== Status of the field ==
 
The standing of the field of parapsychology has always been controversial within the scientific community.
 
   
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Today, the SPR and ASPR continue the investigation of [[Psi (parapsychology)|psi phenomena]]. The SPR's purpose is stated in every issue of its ''Journal''&mdash;being "to examine without prejudice or prepossession and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or supposed, which appear to be inexplicable on any generally recognized hypothesis."<ref>{{cite book |last=Wooffitt |first=Robin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Language of Mediums and Psychics: The Social Organization of Everyday Miracles |publisher=Ashgate |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=075464202X}}</ref>
As its name indicates, parapsychology is sometimes considered a sub-branch of [[psychology]], and this has arisen historically since it involved the study of apparent mental faculties. In its modern form, parapsychology is an interdisciplinary field, which has attracted physicists, engineers, and biologists, as well as psychologists and those from other sciences. (For an argument that parapsychological phenomena may not in fact be psychological, see [[Peter J. King]]'s [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~shil0124/papers/parapsychology.pdf &quot;Parapsychology without the 'Para' (or the 'Psychology')&quot;] (''Think'' 3, 2003, pp&nbsp;43&nbsp;53).)
 
   
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===Rhine era===
Parapsychology often involves the use of new and untested technologies and methods such as [[neurofeedback]], [[Neuro-linguistic programming]], [[past life regression]] and so on.
 
   
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In 1911, [[Stanford University]] became the first academic institution in the [[United States]] to study extrasensory perception (ESP) and [[psychokinesis]] (PK) in a laboratory setting. The effort was headed by psychologist John Edgar Coover. In 1930, [[Duke University]] became the second major U.S. academic institution to engage in the critical study of ESP and psychokinesis in the laboratory. Under the guidance of psychologist [[William McDougall (psychologist)|William McDougall]], and with the help of others in the department—including psychologists [[Karl Zener]], [[Joseph B. Rhine]], and Louisa E. Rhine—laboratory ESP experiments using volunteer subjects from the undergraduate student body began. As opposed to the approaches of psychical research, which generally sought [[Qualitative research|qualitative evidence]] for paranormal phenomena, the experiments at Duke University proffered a [[Quantitative research| quantitative]], [[statistical]] approach using [[Zener cards|cards]] and dice. As a consequence of the ESP experiments at Duke, standard laboratory procedures for the testing of ESP developed and came to be adopted by interested researchers throughout the world.<ref name="Berger" />
Many people are not satisfied with the term, and have proposed alternatives, such as "psi research" (similar to the older term "psychical research"), but "parapsychology" is the term that has gained the greatest acceptance today.
 
   
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The publication of J.B. Rhine's book, ''New Frontiers of the Mind'' (1937) brought the laboratory's findings to the general public. In his book, Rhine popularized the word "parapsychology," which psychologist [[Max Dessoir]] had coined over 40 years earlier, to describe the research conducted at Duke. Rhine also founded an autonomous Parapsychology Laboratory within Duke and started the ''[[Journal of Parapsychology]]'', which he co-edited with McDougall.<ref name="Berger" />
One organization involved in the field, the [[Parapsychological Association]] is an affiliate of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS). [http://www.aaas.org/aboutaaas/affiliates/#P]. At present (2006) there are about two hundred and seventy five members in the Parapsychological Association.
 
   
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The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked much criticism from academic psychologists who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. Rhine and his colleagues attempted to address these criticisms through new experiments, articles, and books, and summarized the state of the criticism along with their responses in the book ''Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years''.<ref name="ESP60">Rhine, J.B. (1966). Foreword. In Pratt, J.G., Rhine, J.B., Smith, B.M., Stuart, C.E., & Greenwood, J.A. (eds.). Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years, 2nd ed. Boston, US: Humphries.</ref>
===How science views the field===
 
In the scientific disciplines, there is a belief that all claims should be treated with [[scientific skepticism]]. Mainstream scientists generally argue that after examining psi claims for over a century, there has been significant difficulty assertaining significant positive evidence for such claims.
 
   
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The administration of Duke grew less sympathetic to parapsychology, and after Rhine's retirement in 1965 parapsychological links with the university were broken. Rhine later established the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man (FRNM) and the Institute for Parapsychology as a successor to the Duke laboratory.<ref name="Berger" /> In 1995, the centenary of Rhine's birth, the FRNM was renamed the Rhine Research Center. Today, the Rhine Research Center is a parapsychology research unit, stating that it "aims to improve the human condition by creating a scientific understanding of those abilities and sensitivities that appear to transcend the ordinary limits of space and time."<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of the Rhine Research Center |publisher=Rhine Research Center |url=http://www.rhine.org/f_hist.htm |accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>
Many in the scientific community believe that parapsychology is not a real science, that psi phenomena do not exist, and that parapsychology is a [[pseudoscience]]. Many scientists and skeptical observers of the field believe that some parapsychologists knowingly commit [[fraud]]; that some are incompetent or misled by their own hopes or desires; and that some are naïve and therefore easily deceived by fraudulent participants; or perhaps some combination of the above. One of the most famous cases in psychology that illustrates being misled by one's hopes is that of [[Clever Hans]]. Mr. Wilhelm von Osten, who promoted the horse, did not intend to defraud anyone, but he fooled himself and large audiences nevertheless. [http://acp.eugraph.com/about/hans.html]
 
   
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===Establishment of the Parapsychological Association===
Parapsychologists disagree with this assessment. Many have been formally trained in science, and are familiar with the scientific method. Statistician [[Jessica Utts]] has shown in a number of papers that:
 
   
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The [[Parapsychological Association]] (PA) was created in [[Durham, North Carolina]], on June 19, 1957. Its formation was proposed by J. B. Rhine at a workshop on parapsychology which was held at the Parapsychology Laboratory of Duke University. Rhine proposed that the group form itself into the nucleus of an international professional society in parapsychology. The aim of the organization, as stated in its Constitution, became "to advance parapsychology as a science, to disseminate knowledge of the field, and to integrate the findings with those of other branches of science".<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Parapsychological Association |url=http://www.parapsych.org/history_of_pa.html |work=The Parapsychological Association |accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>
:"Using the standards applied to any other area of science, it is concluded that psychic functioning has been well established. The statistical results of the studies examined are far beyond what is expected by chance. Arguments that these results could be due to methodological flaws in the experiments are soundly refuted."[http://anson.ucdavis.edu/~utts/psipapers.html]
 
   
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Under the direction of anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the Parapsychological Association took a large step in advancing the field of parapsychology in 1969 when it became affiliated with the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS), the largest general scientific society in the world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychological Association. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> In 1979, physicist [[John A. Wheeler]] argued that parapsychology is pseudoscientific, and that the affiliation of the PA to the AAAS needed to be reconsidered.<ref name="Wheeler">{{cite book | author = [[John Archibald Wheeler]] | title = Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics | publisher = [[W. W. Norton]] | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-39304-642-7 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Yk5cth-oZmQC&pg=PA343&lpg=PA343&dq=aaas+meeting+parapsychology&source=web&ots=6QhZmeLkBy&sig=ZuSfhM0YvTScEm-rvZ1GDVlVpyU
The precise percentage of scientists holding negative views about parapsychology is unclear, since surveys targeting this group are far less common than those targeting the general population. In his article [http://www.unice.fr/zetetique/anglais/a_zetetique.html Save Our Science: Paranormal Phenomena and Zetetics], skeptic [[Henri Broch]] complains:
 
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His challenge to parapsychology's AAAS affiliation was unsuccessful.<ref name="Wheeler" /> Today, the PA consists of about three hundred full, associate, and affiliated members worldwide and maintains its affiliation with the AAAS.<ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |last=Irwin |first=Harvey J. |authorlink = |title=An Introduction to Parapsychology, Fourth Edition |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2007 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jB88qA7C9oYC&dq=An+Introduction+to+Parapsychology.&pg=PP1&ots=L53QIyz2qx&sig=-2bQfPeTt1QDFDJN_RzNSgQ4ZCs&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26channel%3Ds%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26hs%3D0AF%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dspell%26resnum%3D0%26ct%3Dresult%26cd%3D1%26q%3DAn%2BIntroduction%2Bto%2BParapsychology.%26spell%3D1&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title
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|isbn=0786418338 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> The annual AAAS convention provides a forum where parapsychologists can present their research to scientists from other fields and advance parapsychology in the context of the AAAS's lobbying on national science policy.<ref name="Harvey" />
   
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===Decade of increased research (1970s)===
:"These data are based on an investigation on the belief in parasciences among Frenchmen (published in 1986). [...] Contrary to what might have been thought, the level of belief in the paranormal is directly proportional to the level of education, whatever the religious persuasion may be. Those with higher scientific degrees fare slightly better, although their level of belief is superior to [greater than] the average!"
 
   
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The affiliation of the Parapsychological Association (PA) with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, along with a general openness to psychic and [[occult]] phenomena in the 1970s, led to a decade of increased parapsychological research. During this period, other notable organizations were also formed, including the [[Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine]] (1970), the [[Institute of Parascience]] (1971), the [[Academy of Religion and Psychical Research]], the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]] (1973), the [[International Kirlian Research Association]] (1975), and the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory]] (1979). Parapsychological work was also conducted at the [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI) during this time.<ref name="Melton" />
Some skeptics believe that there is a tendency for parapsychology researchers to select "good days" and discard "bad days" for the people in the test samples. But the "Theory of Runs" shows that the chance of a long run of successes (or failures) increases drastically when the periods of success or failure are selected as part of a larger sample. See: Feller, William (1968), ''An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, vol. I,'' John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, p. 86. For a more recent discussion of the theory and the "arcsine law" see
 
[http://almira.math.u-bordeaux.fr/jtnb/1996-1/manstavicius.ps] or
 
[http://stat-www.berkeley.edu/users/peres/teach/lecture-21.ps ]
 
   
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The scope of parapsychology expanded during these years. Psychiatrist [[Ian Stevenson]] conducted much of his controversial research into [[reincarnation]] during the 1970s. Psychologist [[Thelma Moss]] devoted time to the study of [[Kirlian photography]] at [[UCLA]]'s parapsychology laboratory. The influx of spiritual teachers from Asia, and their claims of abilities produced by [[meditation]], led to research on [[altered states of consciousness]]. American Society for Psychical Research Director of Research, Karlis Osis, conducted experiments in out of body, and astral beaconing. Physicist [[Russell Targ]] coined the term [[remote viewing]] for use in some of his [[Early psi research at SRI|work at SRI]] in 1974.<ref name="Melton" />
Andrew Greeley, a Catholic priest and a sociologist from the [[University of Arizona]], studied surveys on belief in ESP from 1978 through 1987, and studied the mental health of believers in ESP. The surveys he studied showed that from 1978 through 1987, the number of American adults who reported psychic experiences rose from 58% to 67% (clairvoyance and contacts with the dead were reported by 25% of his respondents). According to Greeley, the elderly, women, widows and widowers, and the conventionally religious report higher incidents of such experiences. He also tested the psychological well-being of people reporting mystical experiences with the "Affect Balance Scale" and found that people reporting mystical experiences received top scores. Greeley summarized his findings by writing,
 
   
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During this period, academics outside parapsychology also appeared to have a general optimism towards this research. In 1979, a survey of more than 1,100 college professors in the United States found that only 2% of [[psychologists]] expressed the belief that extrasensory perception was an impossibility. A far greater number, 34%, indicated that they believed ESP was either an established fact or a likely possibility. The percentage was even higher in other areas of study: 55% of [[natural science| natural scientists]], 66% of [[social scientists]] (excluding psychologists), and 77% of academics in the [[arts]], [[humanities]], and [[education]] believed that ESP research was worthwhile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wagner |first= M. W |authorlink= |coauthors=Monnet, M. |title=Attitudes of college professors toward extrasensory perception |journal=Zetetic Scholar |issue=5 |pages=7–17 |year=1979}}</ref>
A few parapsychologists are [[skepticism|skeptics]], for example [[Chris French]] and his colleagues at the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit at [[Goldsmiths College|Goldsmiths College in London]], and [[Richard Wiseman]] and his colleagues at the Perrott-Warrick Research Unit in the Psychology Department of the [[University of Hertfordshire]], both of which units include individuals who are members of the Parapsychological Association. These researchers do not approach the field with a belief in the paranormal, but are rather interested in the purely psychological aspects of those who report paranormal experiences, along with the study of the psychology of deception, hallucination, etc. These researchers also have provided their own guidelines and input to other parapsychologists for the design of experiments and how to properly test those who claim psychic abilities. While some of these guidelines have been useful, many have suffered from a naive understanding of scientific practice in general and in
 
parapsychology in particular, from a distorted view of the methodology actually in use in the field, and the unfortunate habit of some skeptics to make sweeping statements about the applicability of counter-hypotheses to lines of research without actually investigating the appropriateness of those counter-hypotheses to the details at hand. (See, for example a mostly-positive review of one of these guidelines written by skeptics[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_3_63/ai_60054226].)
 
   
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The surge in paranormal research continued throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. By the end of the 1980s, the Parapsychological Association reported members working in more than 30 countries. Additionally, research not affiliated with the PA was being carried out in [[Eastern Europe]] and the former [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Melton" />
The most important point that both proponents and skeptics raise is the need to be critical of the theory, methods, and conclusions of any one who investigates or comments on parapsychology as a science, no matter what point of view they represent. In order to be an objective professional, one must have a first-hand knowledge of the vast past and present published scientific literature in the field, primary and scholarly sources of its age whenever possible, and -- even more important -- have first-hand experience as an experimenter or investigator and a respect for the art of conjuring and its masters. The hands-on approach is essential to scientific progress in the field, whether one approaches it from a "paranormalist" or a "conventional theorist" point of view. Selective and historically uninformed armchair cheerleading and armchair skepticism are equally useless in all fields of inquiry and science.
 
   
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===Parapsychology today===
=== Interpretation of the evidence ===
 
{{Unreferencedsect}}
 
Many scientists hold that the entire body of [[evidence]] to date is of poor quality and not properly controlled; in their view, the entire field of parapsychology has produced no results whatsoever. Frequently, however, proponents argue that those who hold this view have not had any contact with the published literature of the field such as that which can be found in the Journal of Parapsychology, the Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, or in the proceedings of the annual convention of the Parapsychological Association{{Citation needed}}. Instead, they have relied on the analyses made by members of the skeptical community who, wrongly, assume that all parapsychological experiments suffer from flaws and therefore no parapsychological experiment may be considered evidential even in the weak sense of the term. Working psi researchers welcome criticisms that are based on knowledge of the peer-reviewed, published literature of the field. Criticism and blanket statements based on hearsay are not productive and not encouraged in any area of science.
 
   
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Since the 1970s, contemporary parapsychological research has waned considerably in the United States.<ref name="Smee" /> Early research was considered inconclusive, and parapsychologists were faced with strong opposition from their academic colleagues.<ref name="Melton" /> Some effects thought to be paranormal, for example, the effects of [[Kirlian|Kirlian photography]], disappeared under more stringent controls, leaving those avenues of research at dead-ends.<ref name="Melton" /> Many university laboratories in the United States have closed, citing a lack of acceptance by mainstream science as the reason, leaving the bulk of parapsychology confined to private institutions funded by private sources.<ref name="Melton" /> After 28 years of research, [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory]] (PEAR) retired their laboratory in 2007.<ref name="Smee">{{cite journal |title=The lab that asked the wrong questions |journal=Nature |date=2007-03-01 |first=Lucy |last=Odling-Smee |issue=446 |pages=10–11 |doi=10.1038/446010a |url=http://intl.emboj.org/nature/journal/v446/n7131/full/446010a.html |accessdate=2007-06-29 |volume=446}}</ref>
Other scientists{{Citation needed}} hold that there is a small amount of data from properly controlled experiments that can be trusted for a small number of psi phenomena. They hold that this evidence is not definitive, but suggestive enough to warrant further research.
 
   
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Two universities in the United States still have academic parapsychology laboratories: the Division of Perceptual Studies, a unit at the [[University of Virginia]]'s Department of Psychiatric Medicine, studies the possibility of survival of consciousness after bodily death; the [[University of Arizona]]'s Veritas Laboratory conducts laboratory investigations of [[mediums]]. Several private institutions, including the Institute of Noetic Sciences, conduct and promote parapsychological research. [[UK|Britain]] leads parapsychological study in [[Europe]], with privately funded laboratories at the universities of [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]], [[University of Northampton|Northampton]], and [[Liverpool Hope University|Liverpool Hope]], among others.<ref name="Smee" />
Other scientists, who are familiar with the published literature of the field of parapsychology, believe that a great deal of evidence has been collected, which, if it addressed more conventional phenomena, would be sufficient to provide proof.
 
   
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Parapsychological research has also been augmented by other sub-disciplines of psychology. These related fields include [[transpersonal psychology]], which studies transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human mind, and anomalistic psychology, which examines paranormal beliefs and subjective anomalous experiences in traditional psychological terms.<ref name="cardenza">{{cite book |last=Cardena |first=Etzel |authorlink= |title=Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence
====Criticisms of parapsychological research====
 
{{Unreferencedsect}}
 
* [[Anecdotal evidence]], characteristic of most of parapsychology, is inherently unreliable. Anecdotes may have natural, non-anomalous explanations such as random [[coincidence]], [[fraud in parapsychology|fraud]], [[imagination]], or [[auto-suggestion]].
 
   
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Recently at the PA annual convention and conference, AP members re-recognizing "the forgotton pioneers of parapsychology", thus re-examining and accepting the roles of additional contributors of parapsychology, overlooked over the years, that pertain to today.
* If an [[experiment]] is not controlled to prevent fraud, then the results may not be trusted. This is especially so given the fact that many people who claimed to possess [[psi]] abilities were later proven to be frauds.
 
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|publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1557986258}}</ref><ref name="Smee" />
   
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==Research==
* Parapsychology experiments are usually poorly designed. They often lack proper controls, allowing paths of intentional or unintentional information leakage through normal means, etc.
 
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===Scope===
   
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Parapsychologists study a number of ostensible paranormal phenomena, including but not limited to:
* Parapsychology experiments are rarely replicated with positive results at independent laboratories.
 
   
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*'''[[Telepathy]]''': Transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the [[Sense#Five classical senses|five classical senses]].
* Positive results in psi experiments are so statistically insignificant as to be negligible, i.e. indistinguishable from [[chance]]. For example, parapsychology may have a "file drawer" problem where a large percentage of negative results are never published, making positive results appear more significant than they actually are.
 
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*'''[[Precognition]]''': Perception of information about future places or events before they occur.
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*'''[[Clairvoyance]]''': Obtaining information about places or events at remote locations, by means unknown to current science.
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*'''[[Psychokinesis]]''': The ability of the mind to influence matter, time, space, or energy by means unknown to current science.
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*'''[[Reincarnation]]''': The rebirth of a soul or other non-physical aspect of human [[consciousness]] in a new physical body after death.
  +
*'''[[Haunting]]s''': Phenomena often attributed to ghosts and encountered in places a deceased individual is thought to have frequented, or in association with the person's former belongings.
   
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The definitions for the terms above may not reflect their [[mainstream]] usage, nor the opinions of all parapsychologists and their critics. Many critics, for example, feel that parapsychologists are engaged in the study of phenomena that disappear under stringent experimental conditions and are thus normal processes.
* Currently inexplicable positive results of apparently sound experiments do not prove the existence of psi phenomena, i.e., normal explanations may yet be found. Concluding inexplicability from lack of existing explanation constitutes the well-known fallacy [[Argument from Ignorance]].
 
   
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According to the Parapsychological Association, parapsychologists do not study all paranormal phenomena, nor are they concerned with [[astrology]], [[UFOs]], [[Bigfoot]], [[paganism]], [[vampires]], [[alchemy]], or [[witchcraft]].<ref name="faqfile1" />
* Psi phenomena cannot be accepted as explanation of positive results until there is a widely acceptable theory of how they operate.
 
   
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===Methodology===
* Parapsychologists may prefer and write selective history. The whole story may be avoided.
 
   
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Parapsychologists employ a variety of approaches during the study of apparent paranormal phenomena. These methods include qualitative approaches used in traditional psychology, but also quantitative [[empirical]] methodologies. Their more controversial studies involve the use of [[meta-analysis]] in examining the [[Statistics| statistical]] evidence for psi.<ref name="Smee" />
* Parapsychology spends too much time simply trying to show that certain phenomena occur, and too little time trying to explain them &mdash; yet it is explanation that constitutes the heart of scientific enquiry, and wider, scientific acceptance of parapsychological phenomena would come only with the provision of explanation. (See King (2003) cited above.)
 
   
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===Experimental research===
* People who are considered noteworthy psychics could make a lot of money predicting or even controlling (via PK) the outcomes of boxing matches, football games, roulette wheel spins, individual stock price changes, and so on, but none of them seem to do so. Why not?
 
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====Ganzfeld====
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{{main| Ganzfeld experiment}}
   
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[[Image:Ganzfeld.jpg| thumb|left| 150px| Participant of a [[Ganzfeld experiment]] which proponents say may show evidence of telepathy.]]
====Responses from parapsychologists to criticisms====
 
{{Unreferencedsect}}
 
* The hard evidence for psi phenomena today is founded on repeatable experiments and not anecdotal evidence.
 
   
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The [[Ganzfeld experiment|ganzfeld]] (German for "whole field") is a technique used to test individuals for telepathy. The technique was developed to quickly quiet mental "noise" by providing a mild, unpatterned sensory field to mask the [[visual]] and [[Auditory system|auditory]] environment. Isolating the visual sense is usually achieved by creating a soft red glow which is diffused through half ping-pong balls placed over the recipient's eyes. The auditory sense is usually blocked by playing white noise, static, or similar sounds to the recipient. The subject is also seated in a reclined, comfortable position to minimize the sense of touch.
* Anecdotal evidence is considered valid in law and many other fields. The validity of anecdotal evidence does not depend upon the opinion of those listening to it.
 
   
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In the typical ganzfeld experiment, a "sender" and "receiver" are isolated.<ref name="HymanGanzfeld">The Ganzfeld Psi Experiments: A Critical Appraisal, Ray Hyman, Journal of Parapsychology 49, 1985.</ref> The receiver is put into the ganzfeld state, and the sender is shown a video clip or still picture and asked to mentally send that image to the receiver. The receiver, while in the ganzfeld, is asked to continuously speak aloud all mental processes, including images, thoughts, and feelings. At the end of the sending period, typically about 20 to 40 minutes in length, the receiver is taken out of the ganzfeld and shown four images or videos, one of which is the true target and three of which are non-target decoys. The receiver attempts to select the true target, using perceptions experienced during the ganzfeld state as clues to what the mentally "sent" image might have been.
* There is no such thing as a completely foolproof [[experiment]] in any field of [[science]], and it is unreasonable to hold parapsychology to a higher standard of [[epistemology]] than the other sciences. [[Fraud in parapsychology|Fraud]] and incompetence in parapsychology is addressed in the same way it is addressed in any other field of science: repeating experiments at multiple independent laboratories; publishing methods and results in order to receive critical feedback and design better protocols, etc.
 
   
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According to parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]], [[Charles Honorton]], and [[Daryl Bem]], the results of ganzfeld experiments—collectively gathered from over 3,000 individual sessions conducted by about two dozen investigators worldwide—indicate that, on average, the target image is selected by the receiver more often than would be expected by chance alone.<ref name="Radnin97">{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=0062515020}}</ref> Because these meta analyses of ganzfeld results are said to be [[Statistical significance| statistically significant]], they have sparked debates within mainstream academic psychology journals over how to properly interpret the data.<ref name="Honorton">{{cite journal |last=Bem |first=Daryl J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Honorton, Charles |title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=4–18 |year=1995 |url=http://www.dbem.ws/Does%20Psi%20Exist%3F.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.4}}</ref>
* Experimental protocols have been continually improved over time, sometimes with the direct assistance of noted [[skeptic]]s. Meta-analyses show that the significance of the positive results have not declined over time, but instead have remained fairly constant.
 
   
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====Remote viewing====
* There are certain phenomena which have been replicated with [[odds]] against [[chance]] far beyond that required for acceptance in any other science. Meta-analyses show that these cannot be accounted for by any file drawer problem.
 
   
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{{main| Remote viewing}}
* [[Anomalous phenomena]] do not disappear for lack of a [[theory]]. There have been many instances in the history of science where the observation of an anomalous phenomenon came before an explanatory theory, and some commonly accepted non-psi phenomena today still lack a perfectly satisfactory, undisputed theory. For instance, in the past, those who sighted meteors falling to the earth were dismissed as madmen or false prophets.
 
   
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Remote viewing experiments test the ability to gather information on a remote target consisting of an object, place, or person that is hidden from the physical perception of the viewer and typically separated from the viewer at some distance. In one type of remote viewing experiment, a pool of several hundred photographs are created. One of these is randomly selected by a third party to be the target. It is then set aside in a remote location. The remote viewer attempts to sketch or otherwise describe that remote target photo. This procedure is repeated for a number of different targets. Many ways of analytically evaluating the results of this sort of experiment have been developed. One common method is to take the group of seven target photos and responses, randomly shuffle the targets and responses, and then ask independent judges to rank or match the correct targets with the participant's actual responses. This method assumes that if there were an anomalous transfer of information, the responses should correspond more closely to the correct targets than to the mismatched targets.<ref name="Dunne" />
* Theories abound in parapsychology for aspects of psi phenomena, though there is not any one that is comprehensive and widely accepted within parapsychology.
 
   
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Several hundred such trials have been conducted by investigators over the past 25 years, including by the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory]] (PEAR) and by scientists at [[SRI International]] and [[Science Applications International Corporation|SAIC]], under contract by the [[U.S. government]]. The cumulative data was interpreted by Professor of Aerospace Science [[Robert G. Jahn]] and psychologist Brenda Dunne at PEAR as indicating that information about remote photos, actual scenes, and events can be perceived beyond chance expectation.<ref name="Dunne">{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer |journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=207–241 |year=2003 |url=http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v17n2a1.php |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
* It is not necessary to be a licensed [[psychiatrist]] or acquainted with [[clinical psychology]] to test the validity of psi. The field of parapsychology overlaps many disciplines, including [[physics]] and [[biology]], and often physicists, engineers and others trained in the [[Hard science|hard sciences]], in conjunction with [[magic (illusion)|stage magicians]] and other experts in deception, are in a better position to design experiments for certain types of phenomena than are psychiatrists or psychologists.
 
   
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====Psychokinesis on random number generators====
The opinion of parapsychologists regarding the overall evaluation of the body of evidence to date is divided. As noted above, some parapsychologists are [[skeptic]] and do not believe that there is anything observed so far which cannot ultimately be explained within the existing framework of known science. Probably a majority of parapsychologists believe in the likelihood, or at least the possibility, of actual psi phenomena, though there is a range of attitudes toward the evidence.
 
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{{main| Psychokinesis}}
   
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The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between [[Mind-body dichotomy|mind and matter]]. In the most common experiment of this type, a true [[random number generator]] (RNG), based on electronic or [[radioactive]] noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed by computer [[software]]. A subject attempts to mentally alter the distribution of the random numbers, usually in an experimental design that is functionally equivalent to getting more "heads" than "tails" while flipping a coin. In the RNG experiment, design flexibility can be combined with rigorous controls, while collecting a large amount of data in very short period of time. This technique has been used both to test individuals for psychokinesis and to test the possible influence on RNGs of large groups of people.<ref name="Dunne85">{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=721–772 |year=1985 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/vtrr87tg356154r7/ |doi=10.1007/BF00735378|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
Regarding the [[evidence]], the rule of the thumb of the skeptical community is that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. Since skeptics may consider paranormal claims extraordinary, they may think that the evidence needs to be better than what normally would be required. However, this puts the responsibility for investigating seemingly paranormal phenomena squarely on the shoulders of proponents and "internal" skeptics. Not only is research conducted by "external" critics and skeptics useful to the field as a whole, but it also imparts a kind of craft knowledge to critics and skeptics that makes their criticism and counter-hypotheses more productive and more useful. Further many of the counter-hypotheses proposed by skeptics are so unparsimonious as to be extraordinary claims as well, and in that case, those counter-hypothesis, also require extraordinary evidence.
 
   
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Major meta-analyses of the RNG database have been published every few years since appearing in the journal ''[[Foundations of Physics]]'' in 1986.<ref name="Dunne85" /> PEAR founder [[Robert G. Jahn]] and his colleague Brenda Dunne say that the effect size in all cases was found to be very small, but consistent across time and experimental designs, resulting in an overall [[statistical significance]]. The most recent meta-analysis was published in ''[[Psychological Bulletin]]'', along with several critical commentaries.<ref name="pmid16822162">{{cite journal |author=Bösch H, Steinkamp F, Boller E |title=Examining psychokinesis: the interaction of human intention with random number generators&mdash;a meta-analysis |journal=Psychological bulletin |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=497–523 |year=2006 |pmid=16822162 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.497|quote=The study effect sizes were strongly and inversely related to sample size and were extremely heterogeneous. A Monte Carlo simulation revealed that the small effect size, the relation between sample size and effect size, and the extreme effect size heterogeneity found could in principle be a result of publication bias.}}</ref><ref name="pmid16822164">{{cite journal |author=Radin, D.; Nelson, R.; Dobyns, Y.; Houtkooper, J. |title=Reexamining psychokinesis: comment on Bösch, Steinkamp, and Boller |journal=Psychological bulletin |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=529–32; discussion 533–37 |year=2006 |pmid=16822164 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.529}}</ref> This was composed of 380 studies, with the authors reporting an overall positive effect size that was statistically significant but very small, within the margin that could be explained by [[publication bias]].
Most people use this approach to evidence in everyday life. For instance, if the news reports that the president of the USA has just arrived in South Korea for a state visit, most people will take this at face value. The news is considered a fairly reliable source of information, and the president visiting a country such as South Korea is not an extraordinary claim. However, if the same news broadcast later mentioned that a 92-year-old man has improved the world record time on the [[marathon]] by half an hour, many reasonable people would require more evidence, even despite the assumed reliability of the source, since the claim is extraordinary. This analogy might be flawed, however. In the case of the 92 year old man, we have positive evidence gained from a lifetime of experience and the reassurance of physiologists that this feat is indeed extraordinary (i.e., improbable). When it comes to parapsychology, however, some would argue we have no positive evidence that it is improbable, only our own cultural bias
 
and a subjective sense that Psionic powers are extraordinary. Hence, some would argue, it is not the sort of extraordinary claim which necessarily needs more evidence than a mundane claim.
 
   
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====Direct mental interactions with living systems====
Some parapsychologists agree with critics that the field has not yet reached the degree of consistent repeatability of experimental results needed for general consensus. [[John Beloff]], in his book ''Parapsychology: A Concise History'', notes the evanescent &ndash; some have said the apparently evasive &ndash; nature of psychic phenomena over time, and that the range of phenomena observable in a given era seems to be culturally dependent.
 
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Formerly called bio-PK, "direct mental interactions with living systems" (DMILS) studies the effects of one person's intentions on a distant person's [[psychophysiological]] state.<ref name="pmid15142304" /> One type of DMILS experiment looks at the commonly reported "feeling of being stared at." The "starer" and the "staree" are isolated in different locations, and the starer is periodically asked to simply gaze at the staree via closed circuit video links. Meanwhile, the staree's nervous system activity is automatically and continuously monitored.
   
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Parapsychologists have interpreted the cumulative data on this and similar DMILS experiments to suggest that one person's attention directed towards a remote, isolated person can significantly activate or calm that person's [[nervous system]]. In a meta-analysis of these experiments published in the ''British Journal of Psychology'' in 2004, researchers found that there was a small but significant overall DMILS effect. However, the study also found that when a small number of the highest-quality studies from one laboratory were analyzed, the effect size was not significant. The authors concluded that although the existence of some anomaly related to distant intentions cannot be ruled out, there was also a shortage of independent replications and theoretical concepts.<ref name="pmid15142304">{{cite journal |author=Schmidt, S.; Schneider, R.; Utts, J.; Walach, H. |title=Distant intentionality and the feeling of being stared at: two meta-analyses |journal=British journal of psychology (London, England : 1953) |volume=95 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=235–47 |year=2004 |pmid=15142304 |doi=10.1348/000712604773952449}}</ref>
For example, in earlier times, psychic research studied physical phenomena demonstrated by spiritualist mediums that, according to the reports passed down to us in the literature, far surpassed anything that any of today's "psychics" can demonstrate. Skeptics consider this more evidence of the non-existence of psi phenomena. Frequently this particular claim is the result of the proponent community having cut itself off, because of political pressures of conforming to the scientific Zeitgeist, from the community of modern mediums and psychics who operate today. Whether or not the phenomena being exhibited by modern day mediums can provide proof of traditional notions of spirituality or can be attributed to the operation of mundane psychological processes is mostly an open question, due to the lack of research. So it is possible that physical phenomena is being exhibited today, but to what cause the effects may be attributed is an open question, even among parapsychologists.
 
   
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===Near death experiences===
Many people, especially like [[John Beloff]] and [[Stephen E. Braude]], cannot easily dismiss the entirety of all the positive accounts &ndash; many of which came from scientists and conjurors of their day. Many began as skeptics - but then changed their minds to become believers and supporters of psychic phenomena when they encountered the inexplicable; and so believe that continued research is justified. Easily recovered critical historical research reveals these individuals were certainly out of their league when it came to the close up deceptions of fraudulent mediums and adept charlatans. (Podmore, 1910 & Price and Dingwall, 1975)
 
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{{main|Near-death experience}}
   
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[[Image:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|165px|right|thumb|''[[Ascent of the Blessed]]'' by [[Hieronymus Bosch]] (after 1490) depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures similar to those reported by near-death experiencers.'']]
Other parapsychologists, such as [[Dean Radin]] and supporters such as statistician [[Jessica Utts]], take the stance that the existence of certain psi phenomena has been reasonably well established in recent times through repeatable experiments that have been replicated dozens to hundreds of times at labs around the world. They refer to meta-analyses of psi experiments that conclude that the odds against chance ([[null hypothesis]]) of experimental results far exceeds that commonly required to establish results in other fields, sometime by orders of magnitude.
 
   
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A [[near-death experience]] (NDE) is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced [[clinical death]] and then revived. NDEs include one or more of the following experiences: a sense of being dead; an [[out-of-body experience]]; a sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area; a sense of overwhelming love and peace; a sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway; meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures; encountering a being of light, or a light; experiencing a [[life review]]; reaching a border or boundary; and a feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by reluctance.<ref name="Mauro">{{cite web |last=Mauro |first=James |authorlink= |title=Bright lights, big mystery |work=Psychology Today |year=1992 |url=http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19920701-000030.html |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
This an old argument. See (Rawcliffe 1952, pages 441 & 442). The question whether or not each of these experiments themselves have been efficiently carried out is avoided. All of the early experiments that were conducted by noted men of science in Italy and Germany with [[Eusapia Palladino]] "proved positive". This same argument did not satisfy the [[United States Department of Defense]] when [[remote viewing]] experiments were being funded for 20 million dollars. The project was terminated for lack of results.
 
   
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Interest in the NDE was originally spurred by the research of psychiatrists [[Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]], George Ritchie, and [[Raymond Moody| Raymond Moody Jr]]. In 1998, Moody was appointed chair in "consciousness studies" at the [[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]]. The [[International Association for Near-death Studies]] (IANDS) was founded in 1978 to meet the needs of early researchers and experiencers within this field of research. Later researchers, such as psychiatrist [[Bruce Greyson]], psychologist [[Kenneth Ring]], and cardiologist Michael Sabom, introduced the study of near-death experiences to the academic setting.<ref name="Mauro" />
Instead, many enthusiastic parapsychologists prefer to dismiss proof-oriented research, intended primarily to verify the existence of psi phenomena and, as in the past, jumped to "process-oriented" research, intended to explore the parameters and characteristics of psi phenomena. Time will tell whether these results prove to be evanescent as well. Unfortunately, what complicates the "time will tell" hope that many skeptics and proponents have is the lack of funds available for research from either the conventional or the "paranormalist" perspectives, and the negative impact on career advancement that an interest in these phenomena -- even from a skeptical point of view -- can have. The past history of repeated psi failures and short comings has given parapsychology a poor reputation.
 
   
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Some researchers, including Dr. [[Rick Strassman]], believe that near death experiences may be related to the chemical [[DMT]]'s (Dimethyltryptamine) release from the pineal gland. The chemical is released naturally during sleep, is thought to have an effect on [[dream]] content, and is used as a recreational drug. Strassman sees the chemical as a mediator for hyperdimensional experiences, and points out that experiences with the drug are comparable to NDE's.<ref>Rick Strassman, [http://www.rickstrassman.com/pages/dmt/ "DMT: The Spirit Molecule"], 2008</ref>
=== Early ''Scientific American'' challenge ===
 
{{Unreferencedsect}}
 
The offering of prizes for demonstrations is not new to the field. Circa [[1924]], ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine offered a $5000 prize to anyone who could produce any "visible psychic manifestation." Medium [[Mina Crandon]], known in the literature as "Margery," made a bid and was tested by a committee set up by the editorial staff. Her performance was such that the committee members were split, four negative to one positive in their opinions. The magazine published the mixed report in its November 1924 issue, no prize was awarded, and the competition was declared closed the following year. In the early [[1900s]], the then well-known stage magician Howard Thurston, who had earlier studied to be a medical missionary, was impressed by the mysterious table lifting demonstrations of medium [[Eusapia Palladino]]. He advertised in the ''[[New York Times]]'' his offer of $1000 to charity in the name of any fellow conjuror who could duplicate this feat. He had no takers. In 1910 Eusapia Palladino publicily
 
acknowledged she used tricks to an American reporter. Today many methods of table lifting and other seance secrets are well known to master conjurors, but kept secret as demanded by their art.(Rinn 1950, Christopher 1975 p.208)
 
   
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===Anomalous psychology===
=== Other objections to parapsychology ===
 
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A number of studies conducted in the [[Americas|American]], [[Europe]]an, and [[Australasian]] continents have found that a majority of people surveyed report having had experiences that could be interpreted as telepathy, [[precognition]], and similar phenomena. Variables that have been associated with reports of psi-phenomena include belief in the reality of psi; the tendency to have [[hypnotic]], [[dissociative]], and other alterations of consciousness; and, less reliably so, [[neuroticism]], [[extraversion]], and openness to experience. Although psi-related experiences can occur in the context of such psychopathologies as schizotypal personality, dissociative, and other disorders, most individuals who endorse a belief in psi are well-adjusted, lack serious [[pathology]], and are not intellectually deficient or lacking critical abilities.<ref name="cardenza" />
There are a variety of other objections to parapsychology as well.
 
   
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==Criticism==
* Psi Phenomena as a Violation of the Laws of Physics or Nature
 
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[[Image:Paraghost.gif| thumb| left| 165px| Fabricated images of [[ghosts]] such as this were very popular in the 19th century.]]Scientists who are critical of parapsychology begin with the assertion that extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence. Proponents of hypotheses that contradict centuries of scientific research must provide extraordinary evidence if their hypotheses are to be taken seriously.<ref name="Gracely">{{cite web |last=Gracely, Ph.D. |first=Ed J. |authorlink= |title=Why Extraordinary Claims Demand Extraordinary Proof |work=PhACT |year=1998 |url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/extraproof.html
:Some critics claim that the existence of psi phenomena would violate "the known laws of physics", and some of these critics believe that this is reason enough that such phenomena should not be studied. Parapsychologists respond that "laws of nature" are simply summaries of existing scientific knowledge and do get revised from time to time during the course of scientific progress, in addition they are not so well understood that with them one could confidently predict the non existence of Psi (Consider quantum mechanics). If the existence of psi phenomenon were ever proved, explaining how they work might require revising or extending the known laws of physics. Precognition, for example, would challenge commonly held notions about causality and the unidirectional nature of time. However, these commonly held notions are often not physical laws, and are already being challenged by modern physical theories, quite apart from psi phenomena. [[Skepticism|Skeptics]] and parapsychologists alike generally agree that, as per [[Occam's Razor]], simple explanations should be preferred for any resulting theories of psi. Some parapsychologists are critical of skeptics' frequently-uninvestigated claims about fraud, or the application of conventional hypotheses specifically because these claims are unparsimonious. Conventional explanations, many parapsychologists believe, should also conform to Occam's Razor. Then there are others, both skeptics and proponents, who agree that even in mainstream science nature itself is frequently unparsimonious.
 
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|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Many analysts of parapsychology hold that the entire body of evidence to date is of poor quality and not adequately controlled. In their view, the entire field of parapsychology has produced no conclusive results whatsoever. They cite instances of fraud, flawed studies, a [[Magical thinking|psychological need for mysticism]], and [[cognitive bias]]es (such as [[clustering illusion]], [[availability error]], [[confirmation bias]], [[illusion of control]], and the [[bias blind spot]])<ref name="Moulton">{{cite journal |author=Moulton ST, Kosslyn SM |title=Using neuroimaging to resolve the psi debate |journal=Journal of cognitive neuroscience |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=182–92 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18095790 |doi=10.1162/jocn.2008.20.1.182 |url= |accessdate=2008-10-13}}</ref> as ways to explain parapsychological results.<ref>{{cite book |last=Myers |first=David G |title=Psychology |edition=8th |year=2006 |publisher=Worth Publishers, Inc. |isbn=0716764288}}</ref> Skeptics have also contended that people's desire to believe in paranormal phenomena causes them to discount strong evidence that it does not exist.<ref>{{cite web |last=Myers |first=David G |authorlink= |coauthors=Blackmore, Susan |title=Putting ESP to the Experimental Test |work=Hope College |url=http://www.davidmyers.org/Brix?pageID=61&article_part=4 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
   
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The reality of parapsychological phenomena and the scientific validity of parapsychological research is disputed by independent evaluators and researchers. In 1988, the [[U.S. National Academy of Sciences]] gave a report on the subject that concluded that "no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena."<ref name="NAS" /> In the same report, however, they also recommended monitoring some parapsychological research, such as psychokinesis on random number generators and Ganzfeld effects, for possible future studies.<ref name="NAS" /> The studies at the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab|PEAR lab]], recommended for monitoring by the report, have since concluded. These studies likewise failed to elicit a positive response by the scientific community despite numerous trials.<ref name="Smee" /> A 2008 study using [[fMRI]] showed no detectable psi effect.<ref name="Moulton" />
* Parapsychology as Taboo
 
:Some believe that paranormal phenomena ''should not'' be studied, either because they are forbidden by their religious orientation, or because they believe that to do so opens the investigators to some sort of "spiritual attack". Parapsychology is also seen as a taboo subject in science and the academy and individuals who show an interest in studying seemingly psychic phenomena, even from a skeptical point of view, often find themselves losing or being pushed out of employment, or denied funding. Anthropologist of science, David J. Hess, has written on this topic.[http://www.davidjhess.org/DiscHet.pdf]
 
   
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Additionally, the methods of parapsychologists are regarded by some critics, including those who wrote the science standards for the [[California State Board of Education]],<ref name="CaliBoard" /> to be [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]].<ref name="Beyerstein">{{cite web |last=Beyerstein |first=Barry L. |authorlink= |title=Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience |work=Simon Fraser University |year=1995 |url=http://www.sfu.ca/~beyerste/research/articles/02SciencevsPseudoscience.pdf
* Parapsychology as a Danger to Society
 
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|format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20030820105331/http://www.sfu.ca/~beyerste/research/articles/02SciencevsPseudoscience.pdf|archivedate=2003-08-20}}</ref> Some of the more specific criticisms state that parapsychology does not have a clearly defined subject matter, an easily repeatable experiment that can demonstrate a psi effect on demand, nor an underlying theory to explain the paranormal transfer of information.<ref name="Hyman" /> James E. Alcock, Professor of [[Psychology]] at [[York University]], said that few of parapsychology's experimental results have prompted interdisciplinary research with more mainstream sciences such as [[physics]] or [[biology]]. Alcock states that parapsychology remains an isolated science to such an extent that its very legitimacy is questionable,<ref name="Alcock81">{{cite book |last=Alcock |first=J. E. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychology, Science or Magic? |publisher=Pergamon Press |year=1981 |isbn=0080257720}}</ref> and as a whole is not justified in being labeled "scientific".<ref name="Alcock98">{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=J. E. |authorlink= |title=Science, pseudoscience, and anomaly |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |year=1998}}</ref>
:Some believe that parapsychology should not be pursued because it somehow represents a danger to society. As is stated in the Y2000 NSF report ''Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Public Understanding: Belief in the Paranormal or Pseudoscience''{{ref|nsf}}:
 
   
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===Fraud===
:"Concerns have been raised, especially in the science community, about widespread belief in paranormal phenomena. Scientists (and others) have observed that people who believe in the existence of paranormal phenomena may have trouble distinguishing fantasy from reality. Their beliefs may indicate an absence of critical thinking skills necessary not only for informed decision making in the voting booth and in other civic venues (for example, jury duty), but also for making wise choices needed for day-to-day living."
 
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[[Image:James Randi crop.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Magic (illusion)|Stage magician]] and [[debunker]] [[James Randi]] is a well-known critic of parapsychology and has shown that [[Magic (illusion)|magic tricks]] can account for some apparent psychic phenomena.]]
   
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There have been instances of [[fraud]] in the history of parapsychology research. The Soal-Goldney experiments of 1941&ndash;43 (suggesting precognitive ability in subjects) were long regarded as some of the best in the field because they relied upon independent checking and witnesses to prevent fraud. However, many years later, suspicions of fraud were confirmed when statistical evidence, uncovered and published by other parapsychologists in the field, indicated that Dr. Soal had cheated by altering the raw data.<ref name="Alcock81" /><ref name="Haskell">{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=C. |authorlink= |coauthors=Haskell, P. |title="Normal" Explanation of the Soal-Goldney Experiments in Extrasensory Perception |journal=Nature |volume=245 |issue=5419 |pages=52–54 |year=1973 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Natur.245...52S |doi=10.1038/245052a0 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref name="Marwick">{{cite journal |last=Markwick |first=B |authorlink= |coauthors=Haskell, P. |title=The Soal-Goldney experiments with Basil Shackleton: new evidence of data manipulation |journal=Proc Soc Psychical Res |volume=56 |pages=250–277 |year=1978}}</ref>
Even "insiders" in the parapsychological community worry about the possible harm that naive belief in paranormal phenomena can have on individuals, on culture and on societies. A great deal of effort has been put into the notion of developing expertise in dealing with reported experiences both in a clinical sense, and as a topic of investigation. Unfortunately organized skepticism and the "taboo" that exists against serious research on such phenomena has impeded the ability of many researchers -- both skeptics and proponents -- from doing the kinds of research that would allow evidence-based therapeutic interventions.
 
   
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Walter J. Levy, director of the Institute for Parapsychology, reported on a series of successful ESP experiments involving computer-controlled manipulation of non-human subjects, including eggs and rats. His experiments showed very high positive results. Because the subjects were non-human, and because the experimental environment was mostly automated, his successful experiments avoided criticism concerning [[Observer-expectancy effect|experimenter effects]], and removed the question of the subject's belief as an influence on the outcome.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parapsych.org/sheep_goat_effect.htm|title=Sheep Goat Affect |accessdate=2008-08-13|date=|publisher=Parapsychological Association}} </ref> However, Levy's fellow researchers became suspicious about his methods. They found that Levy interfered with data-recording equipment, manually creating fraudulent strings of positive results. Rhine fired Levy and reported the fraud in a number of articles.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rhine, J.B |title=A new case of experimenter unreliability |journal=Journal of Parapsychology |volume=38 |pages=137–153 |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bauer, E |title=Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology – An Overview |journal=European Journal of Parapsychology |volume=5 |pages=141–166 |year=1984 |url=http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
Although under the heading 'paranormal phenomena' the report lists topics such as astrology, UFOs, and the Loch Ness Monster, it also lumps in belief in ESP and, by implication, most parapsychology.
 
   
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Many [[spiritualist]] [[Mediumship|mediums]] used fraud, and some were exposed by early psychical researchers such as Richard Hodgson<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A040457b.htm |title=Hodgson, Richard (1855 - 1905) Biographical Entry |accessdate=2007-08-03 |date= |publisher=Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition}}</ref> and [[Harry Price]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ull.ac.uk/historic/hplbiog.shtml |title=Harry Price Library Biography |accessdate=2007-08-03 |date= |publisher=Senate House Library, University of London}}</ref> In the 1920s, [[Magic (illusion)|magician]] and escapologist [[Harry Houdini]] said that researchers and observers had not created experimental procedures which absolutely preclude fraud.<ref name="Houdini">{{cite book |last=Houdini |first=Harry |authorlink= |title=A Magician Among the Spirits |publisher=Arno Press |year=1987 |pages= |url= |doi=}}</ref> In 1979, magician and [[debunker]] [[James Randi]] perpetrated a hoax, now referred to as [[Project Alpha]]. Randi recruited two young magicians and sent them under cover to [[Washington University]]'s McDonnell Laboratory with the specific aim of exposing the credulity and poor experimental methods thought to be common in parapsychology. Randi reports that both of his recruits deceived experimenters over a period of four years with demonstrations of supposed [[Spoon bending|telekinetic metal bending]].<ref name="randi83">Randi, J. (1983). The Project Alpha experiment: Part one: the first two years. ''Skeptical Inquirer'', Summer issue.</ref> Such alleged methodological failures have been cited as evidence that most, if not all, extraordinary results in parapsychology derive from error or fraud. The use of trickery or deception is accepted and practiced in many psychology experiments.<ref>''Predictable Irrationality: The Hidden Forces That Shape our Decisions'' by Dan Ariely, Harper Collins Publishers, 2008''<nowiki/>''</ref>
* Parapsychology as a Waste of Resources
 
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The entry ''Extrasensory Perception: Lessons from a magician'' (James Randi) appears in the text book, ''Psychology'' by Carole Wade and [[Carol Tavris]], Harper Collins, 1990, p. 197. The lesson taught is "one's sense impressions of reality are not the same as reality."
:Some believe that parapsychology should not be funded because it is a waste of resources that would be better spent on other activities. Some of these critics feel so strongly about this that they engage in activism to try to prevent or remove funding from psi research. [[Psychic detective]]s may waste valuable police resources. One of the negative -- and probably unintended -- consequences of this point of view is that while 10% of the world's population or over 400 million individuals on the planet, may experience what they believe are psychic phenomena, and may suffer in their daily lives from psychological problems caused by their experiences, few scientists on the planet are able to find the resources to really investigate the phenomena, and therefore very little real knowledge exists that can be used to help these experiencers. While even most parapsychologists would agree there are more urgent problems to solve, having no research address these reported experiences does a grave disservice to people everywhere.
 
   
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===Criticism of experimental results===
== History and evaluation==
 
See [[history of parapsychology]].
 
   
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Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is [[scientific]], they are not satisfied with its experimental results.<ref name="Alcock03">{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=29–50 |year=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref name="Hyman">{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |year=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30|archiveurl=http://archive.is/rv0W|archivedate=2012-07-09}}</ref> Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful experimental results in psi research are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to genuine psi effects.<ref name="Akers">{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html
== Trivia ==
 
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|accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L.
{{Unreferencedsect}}
 
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|title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1987 |url= http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |year=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30|archiveurl=http://archive.is/9VS8|archivedate=2012-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lobach |first=E. |coauthors=Bierman, D. |title=The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects |work=Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention |url=http://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |year=2004 |pages=77–90 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> For example, the data from the PEAR laboratory has been criticized by researchers such as statistics professor [[Jessica Utts]] and psychologist [[Ray Hyman]]. Utts has stated that these experiments suffered numerous problems with regard to randomization, statistical baselines and the application of statistical models, and concluded that the significance values quoted in the experiments were meaningless due to defects in experimental and statistical procedures of the studies.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Critique Of The Pear Remote-viewing Experiments|journal=Journal of Parapsychology|date=1992-06|first=George P.|last=Hansen|coauthors=Utts, Jessica; Markwick, Betty|volume=56|issue=2|pages=97–113 |id= |url=http://www.tricksterbook.com/ArticlesOnline/PEARCritique.htm|format=|accessdate=2007-07-02}}</ref>
* German psychiatrist Hans Berger originally invented the [[electroencephalograph]] (EEG) in 1929 as a tool to study whether telepathy might be explained by brain waves.
 
* The first and only Ph.D. in Parapsychology awarded by the [[University of California, Berkeley]] was to Dr [[Jeffrey Mishlove]] in 1980. Subsequently some activists unsuccessfully lobbied the Berkeley administration to revoke the degree. [http://www.psi-researchcentre.co.uk/biography.html Reportedly,] as many as 46 people in the UK have doctorates in parapsychology. However, this is a myth. In fact, with the exception of Dr. Mishlove, mentioned above, the so-called "46 people in the UK" have doctorates in other disciplines, principally in psychology, but completed doctoral thesis work which included or were devoted to research projects in parapsychology. Such individuals are also expected to be competent in the disciplines in which they received their degrees. Examples of these individuals include: Dr. Susan Blackmore, Dr. Richard Broughton, Dr. Deborah Delanoy, Dr. Serena-Roney Dougall, Dr. Chris Roe, Dr. Simon Sherwood, Dr. Christine Simmonds, Dr. Matthew Smith, Dr. Carl Williams, Dr. Richard Wiseman, among others.
 
* Patent #5830064, "Apparatus and method for distinguishing events which collectively exceed chance expectations and thereby controlling an output," was granted by the US Patent Office on Nov 3rd, 1998 to inventors including several researchers from the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research (PEAR) center. The patent in no way relies on the existence of psi phenomena, but in the description the inventors do suggest that "One application of the present invention is the investigation of anomalous interaction between an operator and random physical systems, whether by serious scientists or curious members of the public who would like to conduct experiments on their own."
 
*Throughout the history of the investigations of physical mediums there seems to be no record of simply applying wet paint to a medium's hands and feet to ensure control and eliminate fraud.
 
*Joseph B. Rhine began examining psychic abilities after hearing, and being deeply impressed, by a lecture given by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, about the scientific reality of having established contact with the dead. (Rinn 1950)
 
*In reviewing the history of parapsychology from the present back to its birth from 19th century spiritism it becomes apparent that there was a preconceived belief in the existence of psychic phenomena by members of science that led to poor testing conditions, and loosening of controls, so phenomena would be produced and validated, rather than a genuine curious search to discover whether or not psychic phenomena existed at all. (Rawcliffe 1952, Podmore 1963, Christopher 1979)
 
*In early psychic research the advice of master conjurors on establishing control has been very valuable, but not appreciated by scientific investigators who had become close and fond of their subjects and their produced phenomena. There are many past examples where serious mistakes were made. (Christopher 1970, Rinn 1950, Hyman 1989, Podmore 1975, Price & Dingwall 1975) As long as this breach continues between master conjurors and scientific parapsychologists. Parapsychologists are likely to repeat the same mistakes.
 
*Some early and mid 20th century psychologists concluded Psychical research represents a reversion to occult beliefs which have had their origins in the earliest of human cultures.(Rawcliffe 1952)
 
   
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Because psi is a negatively defined concept, a typical measure of the evidence for such phenomena in parapsychological experiments is statistical deviation from chance expectation. However, critics point out that statistical deviation from chance is, strictly speaking, only evidence of a statistical anomaly, or that some unknown variable was causing the deviation from chance. Hyman contends that even if experiments could be made to reproduce the findings of certain parapsychological studies under specific conditions, this would be a far cry from concluding that psychic functioning has been demonstrated.<ref name="Hyman33">{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/9603/claims.html |title=The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality |accessdate=2007-07-02 |last=Hyman |first=Ray |year=1996 |publisher=[[CSICOP]]}}</ref> It has also been stated that assuming psi exists is [[affirming the consequent]] or [[begging the question]]. Reasoning that (1) if a person is psychic, then that individual will do better than chance in experiments, and (2) since that person does better than chance, then, (3) that person must be psychic, would be considered the fallacy of affirming the consequent.<ref name="Carrol">{{cite web |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |authorlink= |title=psi assumption |work=Skepdic.com |publisher=The Skeptics Dictionary |year=2005 |url=http://www.skepdic.com/psiassumption.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref>
== Famous parapsychologists ==
 
* [[Hans Bender]]
 
* [[Susan Blackmore]], became a skeptic after many years of study
 
* [[William Crookes]]
 
* [[Charles Honorton]]
 
*[[Brian Josephson]] - Nobel Prize in Physics, 1973
 
* [[Oliver Lodge]]
 
*[[William McDougall]]
 
* [[Jeffrey Mishlove]] only US PhD in the subject
 
*[[Edgar Mitchell]], astronaut
 
* [[Frederick W. H. Myers]]
 
* [[Harry Price]]
 
*[[Andrija Puharich]] brought [[Uri Geller]] to worldwide notice
 
*[[Harold E. Puthoff]], physicist
 
* [[Dean Radin]] - Author of ''The Conscious Universe'', which examines the scientific evidence in parapsychology.
 
* [[Carl Reichenbach]]
 
* [[Joseph B. Rhine]], first modern academic research in the field
 
* [[Charles Robert Richet]]
 
* [[Helmut Schmidt (parapsychologist)|Helmut Schmidt]]
 
* [[Gary Schwartz]]
 
* [[Henry Sidgwick]]
 
* [[Ian Stevenson]]
 
* [[Ingo Swann]] , developed [[Remote viewing]]
 
* [[Nancy Ann Tappe]] parapsychologist, San Deigo, Calif. who in 1970's noticed the emergence of children with an indigo aura. This color she reasoned coincided with a new consciousness. She was the first to describe [[indigo children]]. (Detroit News, Page 4F, 24 Jan 2006)
 
*[[Charles Tart]] University of California professor
 
*[[Alfred Russel Wallace]], 1823-1913 co-discoverer of evolution, and author of ''The Scientific Aspect of the Supernatural: Indicating the Desirableness of an Experimental Enquiry by Men of Science Into the Alleged Powers of Clairvoyants and Mediums'' 1866. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S118A.htm online]
 
   
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===Selection bias and meta-analysis===
===Eastern mystics===
 
  +
[[Selection bias| Selective reporting]] has been offered by critics as an explanation for the positive results reported by parapsychologists. Selective reporting is sometimes referred to as a "file drawer" problem, which arises when only positive study results are made public, while studies with negative or null results are not made public.<ref name="pmid16822164" /> Selective reporting has a compounded effect on [[meta-analysis]], which is a statistical technique that aggregates the results of many studies in order to generate sufficient statistical [[power (statistics)|power]] to demonstrate a result that the individual studies themselves could not demonstrate at a [[statistical significance|statistically significant]] level. For example, a recent [[meta-analysis]] combined 380 studies on [[psychokinesis]],<ref name="pmid16822162" /> including data from the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab| PEAR lab]]. It concluded that, although there is a statistically significant overall effect, it is not consistent and relatively few negative studies would cancel it out. Consequently, [[Publication bias| biased publication]] of positive results could be the cause.<ref name="Smee" />
* [[Rais Amrohvi]]
 
* [[Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi]]
 
   
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The popularity of meta-analysis in parapsychology has been criticized by numerous researchers, and is often seen as troublesome even within parapsychology itself.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Replication and Meta-Analysis in Parapsychology |journal=Statistical Science |year=1991 |first=Jessica |last=Utts |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=363–403 |url=http://anson.ucdavis.edu/~utts/91rmp.html |accessdate=2007-07-30|doi=10.1214/ss/1177011577}}</ref> Critics have said that parapsychologists misuse meta-analysis to create the incorrect impression that statistically significant results have been obtained which indicate the existence of psi phenomena.<ref name="Stenger">{{cite web |last=Stenger |first=Victor J. |authorlink= |title=Meta-Analysis and the Filedrawer Effect |work=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |year=2002 |url=http://www.csicop.org/sb/2002-12/reality-check.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref>
===Others who have contributed to this field===
 
The following are famous primarily for fields other than parapsychology but still had important working interests in the field:
 
*[[Hans Eysenck]]
 
*[[Alister Hardy]]
 
*[[Carl Jung]]
 
*[[Arthur Koestler]]
 
*[[Rupert Sheldrake]]
 
   
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Researcher J. E. Kennedy has argued that concerns over the use of meta-analysis in science and medicine apply as well to problems present in parapsychological meta-analysis. As a [[post-hoc analysis]], critics emphasize the opportunity the method presents to produce biased outcomes via the selection of cases chosen for study, methods employed, and other key criteria. Critics claim analogous problems with meta-analysis have been documented in medicine, where it has been shown different investigators performing meta-analyses of the same set of studies have reached contradictory conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Proposal and Challenge for Proponents and Skeptics of Psi |journal=Journal of Parapsychology |year=2005 |first=J.E. |last=Kennedy |volume=68 |pages=157–167 |url=http://jeksite.org/psi/jp04.htm |accessdate=2007-07-29}}</ref>
=== Well-known psychic mediums ===
 
* [[Daniel Dunglas Home]] &mdash; most famous physical medium of the 19th century
 
* [[Edgar Cayce]] &mdash; claimed to be a psychic healer in the first half of the 20th century
 
* [[Aaron Donahue]], self proclaimed Luciferian, occultist, remote viewer, and psychic.
 
* [[Kuda Bux]] firewalker, famous for being able to see with his eyes covered by coins, tape, dough, gauze, etc.
 
* [[John Edward]] &mdash; Host of TV show ''Crossing Over'' in which he claimed to communicate with the dead.
 
* [[Rev.Lauren Kelley, C. Ht.]] &mdash; Psychic, hypnotherapist and healer in the Altanta, GA area. Popular guest on local radio shows.
 
* [[James van Praagh]] &mdash; Host of syndicated TV show in which he claimed to communicate with the dead.
 
* [[Tom Rannachan]] &mdash; Scottish "Psychic Medium" who claims to talk with the dead & receive accurate premonitions.
 
* [[Sathya Sai Baba]], Indian [[guru]]; materialization of small objects
 
   
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==Organizations and publications==
=== Other claimed psychics ===
 
* [[Sylvia Browne]] &mdash; received the [[Pigasus (Randi)|Pigasus]] award, Category #4 for 2004 for claiming to see in July, 2004 that Osama Bin Laden was dead, predicting in 2003 that Saddam Hussein would be found dead by year's end, and other nonsense. Sylvia won in category #2 in 2003.
 
* [[Miss Cleo]]
 
* [[Mina Crandon]] "Margery" &mdash; last noted physical medium in the USA and widely thought to be fraudulent
 
* [[Gerard Croiset]]
 
* [[Natasha Demkina]] &mdash; "The girl with x-ray eyes"
 
* [[Jeane Dixon]] &mdash; claimed to have the Divine gift of being able to predict the future.
 
* [[Eddy Brothers|William and Horatio Eddy]] &mdash; 19th Century [[Vermont]] psychics. Their spirit cabinet performances were very similar to that of the famous [[Davenport Brothers]].
 
* [[Leslie Flint]]
 
* [[Uri Geller]] &mdash; Self-proclaimed telekinetic, famous for bending handled spoons in television shows. Traveled the world with his confederates, who sometimes posed as news reporters. He was deported from Israel, his home country.
 
* [[Jim Jones]] &mdash; claimed to perform healings. He was the leader of the [[Peoples Temple]] that committed mass suicide in 1978
 
* [[Joseph McMoneagle]] Former [[US Army]] intelligence officer, currently a corporate remote viewer
 
* [[Wolf Messing]]
 
* [[Ted Owens]] &mdash; claimed to have the ability in predicting and controlling [[weather]], [[earthquake]]s, and [[volcano]]es through [[psychokinesis]]
 
* [[Eusapia Palladino]]&mdash; accused of using her foot to levitate table and other deceptions by conjurers in hiding who watched her methods at close hand. (Rinn, 1950)
 
* [[Leonora Piper]] The foremost trance medium in the history of psychical reseach. She personally stated that she had never reached a conclusion of whether or not she was in touch with the spirits of the dead.
 
* [[JoJo Savard]]
 
   
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The lack of acceptance by mainstream science has led to a decline in academic ties to parapsychological research.<ref name="Smee" /> Still, there are some university laboratories that continue to conduct parapsychological experiments. Among these are the [[Koestler Parapsychology Unit]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koestler-parapsychology.psy.ed.ac.uk/ |title=Koestler Parapsychology Unit|publisher=University of Edinburgh|accessdate=2008-04-10}}</ref> the Parapsychology Research Group at [[Liverpool Hope University]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hope.ac.uk/research/parapsychology/ |title=Parapsychology Research Group|publisher=Liverpool Hope University|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the VERITAS Research Program at the [[University of Arizona]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://veritas.arizona.edu/ |title=The VERITAS Research Program|publisher=University of Arizona|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit of [[Liverpool John Moores University]];<ref>{{cite web|author=Martin, Lloyd|date=2007-09-17|url=http://www.ljmu.ac.uk/psychology/80007.htm/ |title=Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology|Publisher=Research Unit of Liverpool John Moores University|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes at the [[University of Northampton]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.northampton.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=473,2921704&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL |title=Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes|publisher=University of Northampton |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit at Goldsmiths [[University of London]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldsmiths.ac.uk/apru/ |title=Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit|publisher=Goldsmiths, University of London |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research]], a well-known laboratory that conducted [[psychokinesis]] experiments, closed in February 2007.<ref>{{cite web|date=2007-02-10|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/ |title=Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research|publisher=Princeton University|accessdate=2007-07-11}}</ref>
=== Critics of parapsychology ===
 
* [[Banachek]] tricked scientists for 2 years, 120 laboratory hours, into believing he could bend metal with his minds in the much touted 'Alpha Project' experiment.
 
* [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]] (CSICOP), an advocacy group of scientists arguing for the anti-paranormal point of view.
 
*[[Derren Brown]] (Has a detailed TV show, debunking people's beliefs.)
 
* [[Susan Blackmore]] &mdash; Stopped lecturing and abandoned parapsychology altogether, because she could no longer endure the near fanatic and rude behavior of both believers and non-believers.
 
* [[Milbourne Christopher]] &mdash; Noted conjuring historian and master conjuror, his works are frequently overlooked.
 
* [[Martin Gardner]]-Noted rationalist, puzzler, science writer, and master conjuror
 
* [[Ray Hyman]]- Conjuror and noted research psychologist
 
* [[James Randi]]-Master conjuror and author revealed top Evangelist Peter Poppoff and his wife used trickery to take advantage of their faithful congregation.
 
* [[Ehrich Weiss]] (Harry Houdini)-Master conjuror and author
 
* [[Penn and Teller]]
 
   
  +
Research organizations include the Parapsychological Association;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parapsych.org/ |title=Parapsychological Association|work=parapsych.org |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the ''Journal of Society for Psychical Research'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spr.ac.uk/ |title=Society for Psychical Research|work=spr.ac.uk|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the American Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the ''Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aspr.com/index.html |title=American Society for Psychical Research |work=aspr.com|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology, publisher of the ''Journal of Parapsychology'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhine.org/ |title=Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology|publisher=Rhine.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Parapsychology Foundation, publisher of the ''International Journal of Parapsychology'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parapsychology.org |title=Parapsychology Foundation |work=parapsychology.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and the Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research, publisher of the ''Australian Journal of Parapsychology''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aiprinc.org |title=Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research |work=aiprinc.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> The ''European Journal of Parapsychology'' is independently published.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ejp.org.uk/ |author=Stevens, Paul |coauthors=Ian Baker (eds)|location=Bournemouth University, BH12 5BB, UK |publisher=Poole House {{ISSN|0168-7263}}|title=European Journal of Parapsychology |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref>
== References ==
 
* {{note|nsf}} [http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind00/access/c8/c8s5.htm Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Public Understanding: Belief in the Paranormal or Pseudoscience], [[National Science Foundation]], 2000.
 
* ''Parapsychology'', by Rene Sudre, Citadel Press, NY, 1960, Library of Congress Catalog 60-13928.
 
* ''Parapsychology'', by [[Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi]], Al-Kitaab Publication, 1985.
 
* ''The Conscious Universe'', by [[Dean Radin]], Harper Collins, 1997, ISBN 0062515020.
 
* ''Parapsychology: A Concise History'', by [[John Beloff]], St. Martin's Press, 1993, ISBN 0312096119.
 
* ''Parapsychology: The Controversial Science'', by [[Richard S. Broughton]] , Ballantine Books, 1991, ISBN 0345356381.
 
* ''Our Sixth Sense'', by [[Charles Richet]], Rider & Co., 1937, First English Edition
 
* ''ESP,Seers & Psychics : What the Occult Really Is '', by [[Milbourne Christopher]], Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1970, ISBN 0690268157
 
* ''The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research'', by [[Ray Hyman]], Prometheus Books, 1989, ISBN 0879755040.
 
* ''Readings in the Philosophical Problems of Parapsychology'', ed. [[Antony Flew]], Prometheus Books, 1987, ISBN 0-87975-385-4
 
* ''Sixty Years of Psychical Research : Houdini and I Among the Spirits'', by Joseph Rinn, Truth Seeker, 1950
 
*''The Newer Spiritualism'', by [[Frank Podmore]], Arno Press, 1975, reprint of 1910 edition
 
*''Revelations of a Spirit Medium'' by [[Harry Price]] and Eric J. Dingwall, Arno Press, 1975, reprint of 1891 edition by Charles F. Pidgeon. This rare, overlooked, forgotten book gives the "insider's knowledge" of 19th century deceptions.
 
*''Search for the Soul'' by Milbourne Christopher, Thomas Y. Crowell Publishers, 1979
 
*''Mediums of the 19th Century Volume Two, Book Four, Chapter One, Some Foreign Investigations'' by Frank Podmore, University Book, 1963, reprint of 1902 edition
 
*''Occult and Supernatural Phenomena'' by D.H. Rawcliffe, Dover Publications, reprint of ''Psychology of the Occult'', Derricke Ridgway Publishing co., 1952
 
*''Mediums, Mystics & the Occult'' by Milbourne Christopher, Thomas Y. Crowell Co, 1975
 
   
  +
Organizations that encourage a critical examination of parapsychology and parapsychological research include the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]], publisher of the ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/ |title=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|work=csicop.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and the [[James Randi Educational Foundation]], founded by [[magic (illusion)|magician]] and [[Scientific skepticism|skeptic]] [[James Randi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.randi.org/ |title=James Randi Educational Foundation |work=randi.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref>
==Further reading==
 
*Georges Charpak and Henri Broch , ''Debunked!'', (Johns Hopkins University). 2004
 
*Hoyt L. Edge, Robert L. Morris, Joseph H. Rush , John Palmer, ''Foundations of Parapsychology: Exploring the Boundaries of Human Capability'', Routledge Kegan Paul, 1986, ISBN 0710-0226-1
 
*Paul Kurtz, ''A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology'', Prometheus Books, 1985, ISBN 0879753005
 
*Mishlove, Jeffrey, ''Roots of Consciousness: Psychic Liberation Through History Science and Experience''. 1st edition, 1975, ISBN 0-394-73115-8 2nd edition, Marlowe & Co., July 1997, ISBN 1569247471 There are 2 editions. They are very different. [http://www.williamjames.com/Intro/CONTENTS.htm online]
 
*John White, ed. ''Edgar D. Mitchell Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science'', GP Putman, 1974, ISBN 39911342-8
 
*Benjamin B. Wolman, ed, ''Handbook of Parapsychology'', Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1977, ISBN 0442295766
 
   
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
  +
* [[Anomalistic psychology]]
*[[Clairaudience]]
 
*[[Clairvoyance]]
+
* [[Astrology]]
  +
* [[Dream analysis]]
*[[List of spirituality-related topics]]
 
  +
* [[Mysticism]]
*[[Parapsychology basic topics]]
 
*[[Patapsychology]]
+
* [[Occultism]]
  +
* [[Past life regression]]
*[[Prophecy]]
 
  +
* [[Psychic staring effect]]
*[[Psionics]]
 
*[[Remote Viewing]]
+
* [[Reincarnation]]
  +
* [[Witchcraft]]
*[[True-believer syndrome]]
 
  +
* [[Xenoglossy]]
   
==External links==
+
==References==
  +
{{reflist|2}}
===Independent research organizations===
 
* [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]] (IONS) was founded in 1973 by [[astronaut]] [[Edgar Mitchell]] to explore the frontiers of [[consciousness]] through rigorous scientific research.
 
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/ The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research] (PEAR) program was established at Princeton University in 1979 by Robert G. Jahn, then Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science.
 
* [http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/~spr/ Society for Psychical Research] (SPR). The original scientific society founded in London in 1882.
 
* [http://www.aspr.com/index.html American Society for Psychical Research] (ASPR).
 
* [http://www.rhine.org/ Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology], originally part of [[Duke University]], now an independent research center. The accomplished physicist [[Irving Langmuir]], a founder of many studies in atmospheric electricity and [[plasma physics]], visited Rhine at his laboratory in [[1934]]. Rhine admitted (rather proudly and contentiously) to Langmuir that he had discarded data that was "wrong" because it did not support his belief in [[extrasensory perception]]. See [http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~ken/Langmuir/langC.htm Langmuir's 1953 talk ''Pathological Science'' at [[Princeton University]] ]
 
* [http://www.parapsychology.org Parapsychology Foundation]
 
   
  +
==Further reading==
===University research organizations===
 
  +
* [http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/ Koestler Parapsychology Unit] at the [[University of Edinburgh]].
 
  +
===Books===
* [http://noosphere.princeton.edu/ Global Consciousness Project] at [[Princeton University|Princeton]]
 
  +
{{sisterlinks}}
* [http://veritas.arizona.edu/ The VERITAS Research Program] at the [[University of Arizona]]
 
  +
*{{cite book |last=Broughton |first=Richard S. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychology |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1992 |url=http://www.amazon.com/Parapsychology-Richard-S-Phd-Broughton/dp/0345379586 |isbn=0345379586}}
* [http://cwis.livjm.ac.uk/hum/ctp/ Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit] of the Liverpool John Moores University.
 
  +
* Holzer, Hans Ph.D. Parapsychologist, Author: [http://www.bookideas.com/reviews/index.cfm?fuseaction=displayReview&id=1649 ''The Supernatural: Explaining the Unexplained''] Publisher: Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books, 2003.
* [http://oldweb.northampton.ac.uk/ass/behav/psych/research/ Psychology Research Cluster] at University College Northampton.
 
  +
*{{cite book |last=Houran |first=James |authorlink= |title=Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2001 |pages=330 pages |url=http://www.amazon.com/Hauntings-Poltergeists-Multidisciplinary-James-Houran/dp/0786409843
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/ Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research] (PEAR) at [[Princeton University]].
 
  +
|isbn=0786409843}}
* [http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/personalitystudies/ Division of Personality Studies] (DOPS), a unit of the Department of Psychiatric Medicine at the University of Virginia.
 
  +
*{{cite book |last=Irwin |first=Harvey J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Watt, Caroline A. |title=An Introduction to Parapsychology |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2007 |pages=320 |url=http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Parapsychology-Harvey-J-Irwin/dp/0786430591/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/104-0432038-4451952?ie=UTF8&s=books&qisbn=1183347101&sr=8-1
* Bigelow Chair of Consciousness Studies at the [[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]] (UNLV).
 
  +
|isbn=978-0786430598}}
* [http://www.psychology.adelaide.edu.au/research/apru/APRU.html Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit] (APRU) at the University of Adelaide.
 
  +
*{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |authorlink= |title=Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=Gale Group |year=1996 |url= http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Occultism-Parapsychology-Gordon-Melton/dp/0810394871
* [http://www.goldsmiths.ac.uk/apru/ Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit] at Goldsmiths University of London.
 
  +
|isbn=978-0810394872}}
* [http://phoenix.herts.ac.uk/pwru/hmpage.html Perrott-Warrick Research Unit] in the Psychology Department of the University of Hertfordshire.
 
  +
*Pleasants, H (ed). (1964). Biographical dictionary of Parapsychology / ASIN: B000B7A8P4
  +
*{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink= |title=Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality |publisher=Paraview Pocket Books |year=2006 |pages=368 |url=http://www.amazon.com/Entangled-Minds-Extrasensory-Experiences-Quantum/dp/1416516778
  +
|isbn=978-1416516774}}
  +
*{{cite book
  +
| last = Randi
  +
| first = James
  +
| authorlink = James Randi
  +
| coauthors =
  +
| title = Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions
  +
| publisher = Prometheus Books
  +
| month = June | year = 1982
  +
| location =
  +
| pages = 342
  +
| url =
  +
| doi =
  +
| isbn = 0345409469 }}
  +
*{{cite book
  +
| last = Randi
  +
| first = James
  +
| authorlink = James Randi
  +
| coauthors = Arthur C. Clarke
  +
| title = An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural
  +
| publisher = St. Martin's Griffin
  +
| year = 1997
  +
| location =
  +
| pages = 336
  +
| url =
  +
| doi =
  +
| isbn = 0312151195 }}
  +
*{{cite book
  +
| last = Sagan
  +
| first = Carl
  +
| authorlink = Carl Sagan
  +
| coauthors = Ann Druyan
  +
| title = The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark
  +
| publisher = Ballantine Books
  +
| year = 1997
  +
| location =
  +
| pages = 349
  +
| url =
  +
| doi =
  +
| isbn = 0345409469 }}
  +
*{{cite book
  +
| last = Shepard
  +
| first = Leslie
  +
| authorlink =
  +
| coauthors =
  +
| title = Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology
  +
| publisher = Thomson Gale
  +
| year = 2000
  +
| location =
  +
| pages = 1939 pages
  +
| url = http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Occultism-Parapsychology-Leslie-Shepard/dp/0810385708/ref=sr_1_15/104-0432038-4451952?ie=UTF8&s=books&qisbn=1183347101&sr=8-15
  +
| doi =
  +
| isbn = 978-0810385702 }}
  +
*{{cite book
  +
| last = Wiseman
  +
| first = Richard
  +
| authorlink =
  +
| coauthors = Caroline A. Watt
  +
| title = Parapsychology (International Library of Psychology)
  +
| publisher = Ashgate Publishing
  +
| year = 2005
  +
| location =
  +
| pages = 501 pages
  +
| url = http://www.amazon.com/Parapsychology-International-Library-Psychology-Richard/dp/0754624501/ref=pd_bbs_9/104-0432038-4451952?ie=UTF8&s=books&qisbn=1183347101&sr=8-9
  +
| doi =
  +
| isbn = 978-0754624509 }}
  +
  +
==External links==
  +
* [http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html Parapsychology FAQ] Frequently asked questions, by the [[Parapsychological Association]], a professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of psychic phenomena, affiliated with the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] in 1969.
  +
* [http://findarticles.com/p/search?qt=parapsychology FindArticles.com Index] Large number of articles about parapsychology, from publications such as the ''[[Journal of Parapsychology]]'' and the ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]''.
  +
* [http://csicop.org Committee for Skeptical Inquiry] Organization formed in 1976 to promote [[scientific skepticism]] and encourage the critical investigation of paranormal claims and parapsychology.
  +
* {{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/Alternative/Parapsychology/|Parapsychology}}
   
  +
{{Parapsychology}}
===Other===
 
  +
{{link FA|tr}}
* [http://www.spiritual.com.au/psychics_mediums.htm Articles on Psychics & Mediums]
 
* [http://www.nsac.org/ National Spiritualist Association of Churches]
 
* [http://skepdic.com/parapsy.html Entry on parapsychology in the Skeptic's Dictionary]
 
* [http://www.mdani.demon.co.uk/para/paralink.htm Parapsychology links]
 
* Dean Radin's [http://www.survivalscience.org/debunk/radin1.shtml A Field Guide to Skepticism] from his book ''The Conscious Universe''.
 
* [http://www.banachek.org/Articles/Project%20Alpha.htm ''The Project Alpha Experiment'']
 
* [http://neuro-kinetik.com Neuro-Kinetik.com] Proposes the use of realtime MRI (and related instrumentation) to explore the portions of the brain that relate to parapsychological phenomena.
 
* The online [http://www.lexscien.org/ Library of Exploratory Science] contains the complete text of many of the major peer reviewed journals in parapsychology and psychical research.
 
*[http://survivalafterdeath.org/articles/dingwall//responsibility.htm] ''The Need for Responsibility in Parapsychology: My Sixty Years in Psychical Research'' by Eric Dingwall
 
   
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Cartas Zener

Early parapsychological research employed the use of Zener cards in experiments designed to test for possible telepathic communication.

Parapsychology is a discipline that seeks to explore parapsychological phenomena, the existence and causes of psychic abilities and life after death using the scientific method. Laboratory and field research is conducted by privately funded laboratories and some universities around the world,[1] although there are fewer universities actively sponsoring parapsychological research today than in years past. Such research is usually published in parapsychological publications, and some articles have appeared in more mainstream journals. Experiments have included the use of random number generators to test for evidence of precognition and psychokinesis with both human and animal subjects,[2][3][4] sensory-deprivation and Ganzfeld experiments to test for extrasensory perception, and research trials conducted under contract to the United States government to investigate whether remote viewing would provide useful intelligence information.

The position of many parapsychologists is that the existence of some forms of psi such as psychokinesis and ESP has good supporting evidence.[5] The greater scientific community has not accepted that there exists evidence for psychic abilities.[6][7][8][9] In 1988 the U.S. National Academy of Sciences produced a report that concluded that there is "no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena."[10] Some science educators and scientists have called the subject pseudoscience.[11][12][verification needed] Psychologists such as Ray Hyman, Stanley Krippner, and James Alcock have criticized both the methods used and the results obtained in parapsychology, stating that methodological flaws may explain any apparent experimental successes.[13]

Template:Paranormal

Terminology

The term parapsychology was coined in or before 1889 by psychologist Max Dessoir. It was adopted by J.B. Rhine in the 1930s as a replacement for the term psychical research, to indicate a significant shift toward laboratory methodologies in their work.[14] The term originates from the Greek: παρά


para

meaning "alongside", and psychology. Parapsychologists call the psychic phenomena that they search for psi, a term intended to be descriptive without implying a mechanism.[15]

History

Early psychical research

Wm james

American psychologist and philosopher William James (1842–1910) was an early psychical researcher.

The Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was founded in London in 1882. The formation of the SPR was the first systematic effort to organize scientists and scholars for a critical and sustained investigation of paranormal phenomena. The early membership of the SPR included philosophers, scholars, scientists, educators and politicians, such as Henry Sidgwick, Arthur Balfour, Hunting, William Crookes, Rufus Osgood Mason and Charles Richet.[16]

The SPR classified its subjects of study into several areas: telepathy, hypnotism, Reichenbach's phenomena, apparitions, haunts, and the physical aspects of Spiritualism such as table-tilting and the appearance of matter from unknown sources, otherwise known as materialization. One of the first collaborative efforts of the SPR was its Census of Hallucinations, which researched apparitional experiences and hallucinations in the sane. The census was the Society's first attempt at a statistical evaluation of paranormal phenomena, and the resulting publication in 1886, Phantasms of the Living is still widely referenced in parapsychological literature today. The SPR became the model for similar societies in other European countries and the United States during the late 19th century. Largely due to the support of psychologist William James, the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) opened its doors in New York City in 1885.[17]

Today, the SPR and ASPR continue the investigation of psi phenomena. The SPR's purpose is stated in every issue of its Journal—being "to examine without prejudice or prepossession and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or supposed, which appear to be inexplicable on any generally recognized hypothesis."[18]

Rhine era

In 1911, Stanford University became the first academic institution in the United States to study extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK) in a laboratory setting. The effort was headed by psychologist John Edgar Coover. In 1930, Duke University became the second major U.S. academic institution to engage in the critical study of ESP and psychokinesis in the laboratory. Under the guidance of psychologist William McDougall, and with the help of others in the department—including psychologists Karl Zener, Joseph B. Rhine, and Louisa E. Rhine—laboratory ESP experiments using volunteer subjects from the undergraduate student body began. As opposed to the approaches of psychical research, which generally sought qualitative evidence for paranormal phenomena, the experiments at Duke University proffered a quantitative, statistical approach using cards and dice. As a consequence of the ESP experiments at Duke, standard laboratory procedures for the testing of ESP developed and came to be adopted by interested researchers throughout the world.[17]

The publication of J.B. Rhine's book, New Frontiers of the Mind (1937) brought the laboratory's findings to the general public. In his book, Rhine popularized the word "parapsychology," which psychologist Max Dessoir had coined over 40 years earlier, to describe the research conducted at Duke. Rhine also founded an autonomous Parapsychology Laboratory within Duke and started the Journal of Parapsychology, which he co-edited with McDougall.[17]

The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked much criticism from academic psychologists who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. Rhine and his colleagues attempted to address these criticisms through new experiments, articles, and books, and summarized the state of the criticism along with their responses in the book Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years.[19]

The administration of Duke grew less sympathetic to parapsychology, and after Rhine's retirement in 1965 parapsychological links with the university were broken. Rhine later established the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man (FRNM) and the Institute for Parapsychology as a successor to the Duke laboratory.[17] In 1995, the centenary of Rhine's birth, the FRNM was renamed the Rhine Research Center. Today, the Rhine Research Center is a parapsychology research unit, stating that it "aims to improve the human condition by creating a scientific understanding of those abilities and sensitivities that appear to transcend the ordinary limits of space and time."[20]

Establishment of the Parapsychological Association

The Parapsychological Association (PA) was created in Durham, North Carolina, on June 19, 1957. Its formation was proposed by J. B. Rhine at a workshop on parapsychology which was held at the Parapsychology Laboratory of Duke University. Rhine proposed that the group form itself into the nucleus of an international professional society in parapsychology. The aim of the organization, as stated in its Constitution, became "to advance parapsychology as a science, to disseminate knowledge of the field, and to integrate the findings with those of other branches of science".[21]

Under the direction of anthropologist Margaret Mead, the Parapsychological Association took a large step in advancing the field of parapsychology in 1969 when it became affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the largest general scientific society in the world.[22] In 1979, physicist John A. Wheeler argued that parapsychology is pseudoscientific, and that the affiliation of the PA to the AAAS needed to be reconsidered.[23] His challenge to parapsychology's AAAS affiliation was unsuccessful.[23] Today, the PA consists of about three hundred full, associate, and affiliated members worldwide and maintains its affiliation with the AAAS.[24] The annual AAAS convention provides a forum where parapsychologists can present their research to scientists from other fields and advance parapsychology in the context of the AAAS's lobbying on national science policy.[24]

Decade of increased research (1970s)

The affiliation of the Parapsychological Association (PA) with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, along with a general openness to psychic and occult phenomena in the 1970s, led to a decade of increased parapsychological research. During this period, other notable organizations were also formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute of Noetic Sciences (1973), the International Kirlian Research Association (1975), and the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory (1979). Parapsychological work was also conducted at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) during this time.[14]

The scope of parapsychology expanded during these years. Psychiatrist Ian Stevenson conducted much of his controversial research into reincarnation during the 1970s. Psychologist Thelma Moss devoted time to the study of Kirlian photography at UCLA's parapsychology laboratory. The influx of spiritual teachers from Asia, and their claims of abilities produced by meditation, led to research on altered states of consciousness. American Society for Psychical Research Director of Research, Karlis Osis, conducted experiments in out of body, and astral beaconing. Physicist Russell Targ coined the term remote viewing for use in some of his work at SRI in 1974.[14]

During this period, academics outside parapsychology also appeared to have a general optimism towards this research. In 1979, a survey of more than 1,100 college professors in the United States found that only 2% of psychologists expressed the belief that extrasensory perception was an impossibility. A far greater number, 34%, indicated that they believed ESP was either an established fact or a likely possibility. The percentage was even higher in other areas of study: 55% of natural scientists, 66% of social scientists (excluding psychologists), and 77% of academics in the arts, humanities, and education believed that ESP research was worthwhile.[25]

The surge in paranormal research continued throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. By the end of the 1980s, the Parapsychological Association reported members working in more than 30 countries. Additionally, research not affiliated with the PA was being carried out in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.[14]

Parapsychology today

Since the 1970s, contemporary parapsychological research has waned considerably in the United States.[26] Early research was considered inconclusive, and parapsychologists were faced with strong opposition from their academic colleagues.[14] Some effects thought to be paranormal, for example, the effects of Kirlian photography, disappeared under more stringent controls, leaving those avenues of research at dead-ends.[14] Many university laboratories in the United States have closed, citing a lack of acceptance by mainstream science as the reason, leaving the bulk of parapsychology confined to private institutions funded by private sources.[14] After 28 years of research, Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory (PEAR) retired their laboratory in 2007.[26]

Two universities in the United States still have academic parapsychology laboratories: the Division of Perceptual Studies, a unit at the University of Virginia's Department of Psychiatric Medicine, studies the possibility of survival of consciousness after bodily death; the University of Arizona's Veritas Laboratory conducts laboratory investigations of mediums. Several private institutions, including the Institute of Noetic Sciences, conduct and promote parapsychological research. Britain leads parapsychological study in Europe, with privately funded laboratories at the universities of Edinburgh, Northampton, and Liverpool Hope, among others.[26]

Parapsychological research has also been augmented by other sub-disciplines of psychology. These related fields include transpersonal psychology, which studies transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human mind, and anomalistic psychology, which examines paranormal beliefs and subjective anomalous experiences in traditional psychological terms.[27][26]

Research

Scope

Parapsychologists study a number of ostensible paranormal phenomena, including but not limited to:

  • Telepathy: Transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the five classical senses.
  • Precognition: Perception of information about future places or events before they occur.
  • Clairvoyance: Obtaining information about places or events at remote locations, by means unknown to current science.
  • Psychokinesis: The ability of the mind to influence matter, time, space, or energy by means unknown to current science.
  • Reincarnation: The rebirth of a soul or other non-physical aspect of human consciousness in a new physical body after death.
  • Hauntings: Phenomena often attributed to ghosts and encountered in places a deceased individual is thought to have frequented, or in association with the person's former belongings.

The definitions for the terms above may not reflect their mainstream usage, nor the opinions of all parapsychologists and their critics. Many critics, for example, feel that parapsychologists are engaged in the study of phenomena that disappear under stringent experimental conditions and are thus normal processes.

According to the Parapsychological Association, parapsychologists do not study all paranormal phenomena, nor are they concerned with astrology, UFOs, Bigfoot, paganism, vampires, alchemy, or witchcraft.[1]

Methodology

Parapsychologists employ a variety of approaches during the study of apparent paranormal phenomena. These methods include qualitative approaches used in traditional psychology, but also quantitative empirical methodologies. Their more controversial studies involve the use of meta-analysis in examining the statistical evidence for psi.[26]

Experimental research

Ganzfeld

Main article: Ganzfeld experiment
Ganzfeld

Participant of a Ganzfeld experiment which proponents say may show evidence of telepathy.

The ganzfeld (German for "whole field") is a technique used to test individuals for telepathy. The technique was developed to quickly quiet mental "noise" by providing a mild, unpatterned sensory field to mask the visual and auditory environment. Isolating the visual sense is usually achieved by creating a soft red glow which is diffused through half ping-pong balls placed over the recipient's eyes. The auditory sense is usually blocked by playing white noise, static, or similar sounds to the recipient. The subject is also seated in a reclined, comfortable position to minimize the sense of touch.

In the typical ganzfeld experiment, a "sender" and "receiver" are isolated.[28] The receiver is put into the ganzfeld state, and the sender is shown a video clip or still picture and asked to mentally send that image to the receiver. The receiver, while in the ganzfeld, is asked to continuously speak aloud all mental processes, including images, thoughts, and feelings. At the end of the sending period, typically about 20 to 40 minutes in length, the receiver is taken out of the ganzfeld and shown four images or videos, one of which is the true target and three of which are non-target decoys. The receiver attempts to select the true target, using perceptions experienced during the ganzfeld state as clues to what the mentally "sent" image might have been.

According to parapsychologists such as Dean Radin, Charles Honorton, and Daryl Bem, the results of ganzfeld experiments—collectively gathered from over 3,000 individual sessions conducted by about two dozen investigators worldwide—indicate that, on average, the target image is selected by the receiver more often than would be expected by chance alone.[29] Because these meta analyses of ganzfeld results are said to be statistically significant, they have sparked debates within mainstream academic psychology journals over how to properly interpret the data.[30]

Remote viewing

Main article: Remote viewing

Remote viewing experiments test the ability to gather information on a remote target consisting of an object, place, or person that is hidden from the physical perception of the viewer and typically separated from the viewer at some distance. In one type of remote viewing experiment, a pool of several hundred photographs are created. One of these is randomly selected by a third party to be the target. It is then set aside in a remote location. The remote viewer attempts to sketch or otherwise describe that remote target photo. This procedure is repeated for a number of different targets. Many ways of analytically evaluating the results of this sort of experiment have been developed. One common method is to take the group of seven target photos and responses, randomly shuffle the targets and responses, and then ask independent judges to rank or match the correct targets with the participant's actual responses. This method assumes that if there were an anomalous transfer of information, the responses should correspond more closely to the correct targets than to the mismatched targets.[31]

Several hundred such trials have been conducted by investigators over the past 25 years, including by the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory (PEAR) and by scientists at SRI International and SAIC, under contract by the U.S. government. The cumulative data was interpreted by Professor of Aerospace Science Robert G. Jahn and psychologist Brenda Dunne at PEAR as indicating that information about remote photos, actual scenes, and events can be perceived beyond chance expectation.[31]

Psychokinesis on random number generators

Main article: Psychokinesis

The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between mind and matter. In the most common experiment of this type, a true random number generator (RNG), based on electronic or radioactive noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed by computer software. A subject attempts to mentally alter the distribution of the random numbers, usually in an experimental design that is functionally equivalent to getting more "heads" than "tails" while flipping a coin. In the RNG experiment, design flexibility can be combined with rigorous controls, while collecting a large amount of data in very short period of time. This technique has been used both to test individuals for psychokinesis and to test the possible influence on RNGs of large groups of people.[32]

Major meta-analyses of the RNG database have been published every few years since appearing in the journal Foundations of Physics in 1986.[32] PEAR founder Robert G. Jahn and his colleague Brenda Dunne say that the effect size in all cases was found to be very small, but consistent across time and experimental designs, resulting in an overall statistical significance. The most recent meta-analysis was published in Psychological Bulletin, along with several critical commentaries.[33][34] This was composed of 380 studies, with the authors reporting an overall positive effect size that was statistically significant but very small, within the margin that could be explained by publication bias.

Direct mental interactions with living systems

Formerly called bio-PK, "direct mental interactions with living systems" (DMILS) studies the effects of one person's intentions on a distant person's psychophysiological state.[35] One type of DMILS experiment looks at the commonly reported "feeling of being stared at." The "starer" and the "staree" are isolated in different locations, and the starer is periodically asked to simply gaze at the staree via closed circuit video links. Meanwhile, the staree's nervous system activity is automatically and continuously monitored.

Parapsychologists have interpreted the cumulative data on this and similar DMILS experiments to suggest that one person's attention directed towards a remote, isolated person can significantly activate or calm that person's nervous system. In a meta-analysis of these experiments published in the British Journal of Psychology in 2004, researchers found that there was a small but significant overall DMILS effect. However, the study also found that when a small number of the highest-quality studies from one laboratory were analyzed, the effect size was not significant. The authors concluded that although the existence of some anomaly related to distant intentions cannot be ruled out, there was also a shortage of independent replications and theoretical concepts.[35]

Near death experiences

Main article: Near-death experience
File:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg

Ascent of the Blessed by Hieronymus Bosch (after 1490) depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures similar to those reported by near-death experiencers.

A near-death experience (NDE) is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced clinical death and then revived. NDEs include one or more of the following experiences: a sense of being dead; an out-of-body experience; a sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area; a sense of overwhelming love and peace; a sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway; meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures; encountering a being of light, or a light; experiencing a life review; reaching a border or boundary; and a feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by reluctance.[36]

Interest in the NDE was originally spurred by the research of psychiatrists Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, George Ritchie, and Raymond Moody Jr. In 1998, Moody was appointed chair in "consciousness studies" at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. The International Association for Near-death Studies (IANDS) was founded in 1978 to meet the needs of early researchers and experiencers within this field of research. Later researchers, such as psychiatrist Bruce Greyson, psychologist Kenneth Ring, and cardiologist Michael Sabom, introduced the study of near-death experiences to the academic setting.[36]

Some researchers, including Dr. Rick Strassman, believe that near death experiences may be related to the chemical DMT's (Dimethyltryptamine) release from the pineal gland. The chemical is released naturally during sleep, is thought to have an effect on dream content, and is used as a recreational drug. Strassman sees the chemical as a mediator for hyperdimensional experiences, and points out that experiences with the drug are comparable to NDE's.[37]

Anomalous psychology

A number of studies conducted in the American, European, and Australasian continents have found that a majority of people surveyed report having had experiences that could be interpreted as telepathy, precognition, and similar phenomena. Variables that have been associated with reports of psi-phenomena include belief in the reality of psi; the tendency to have hypnotic, dissociative, and other alterations of consciousness; and, less reliably so, neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. Although psi-related experiences can occur in the context of such psychopathologies as schizotypal personality, dissociative, and other disorders, most individuals who endorse a belief in psi are well-adjusted, lack serious pathology, and are not intellectually deficient or lacking critical abilities.[27]

Criticism

File:Paraghost.gif

Fabricated images of ghosts such as this were very popular in the 19th century.

Scientists who are critical of parapsychology begin with the assertion that extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence. Proponents of hypotheses that contradict centuries of scientific research must provide extraordinary evidence if their hypotheses are to be taken seriously.[38] Many analysts of parapsychology hold that the entire body of evidence to date is of poor quality and not adequately controlled. In their view, the entire field of parapsychology has produced no conclusive results whatsoever. They cite instances of fraud, flawed studies, a psychological need for mysticism, and cognitive biases (such as clustering illusion, availability error, confirmation bias, illusion of control, and the bias blind spot)[39] as ways to explain parapsychological results.[40] Skeptics have also contended that people's desire to believe in paranormal phenomena causes them to discount strong evidence that it does not exist.[41]

The reality of parapsychological phenomena and the scientific validity of parapsychological research is disputed by independent evaluators and researchers. In 1988, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences gave a report on the subject that concluded that "no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena."[10] In the same report, however, they also recommended monitoring some parapsychological research, such as psychokinesis on random number generators and Ganzfeld effects, for possible future studies.[10] The studies at the PEAR lab, recommended for monitoring by the report, have since concluded. These studies likewise failed to elicit a positive response by the scientific community despite numerous trials.[26] A 2008 study using fMRI showed no detectable psi effect.[39]

Additionally, the methods of parapsychologists are regarded by some critics, including those who wrote the science standards for the California State Board of Education,[6] to be pseudoscientific.[42] Some of the more specific criticisms state that parapsychology does not have a clearly defined subject matter, an easily repeatable experiment that can demonstrate a psi effect on demand, nor an underlying theory to explain the paranormal transfer of information.[43] James E. Alcock, Professor of Psychology at York University, said that few of parapsychology's experimental results have prompted interdisciplinary research with more mainstream sciences such as physics or biology. Alcock states that parapsychology remains an isolated science to such an extent that its very legitimacy is questionable,[44] and as a whole is not justified in being labeled "scientific".[45]

Fraud

File:James Randi crop.jpg

Stage magician and debunker James Randi is a well-known critic of parapsychology and has shown that magic tricks can account for some apparent psychic phenomena.

There have been instances of fraud in the history of parapsychology research. The Soal-Goldney experiments of 1941–43 (suggesting precognitive ability in subjects) were long regarded as some of the best in the field because they relied upon independent checking and witnesses to prevent fraud. However, many years later, suspicions of fraud were confirmed when statistical evidence, uncovered and published by other parapsychologists in the field, indicated that Dr. Soal had cheated by altering the raw data.[44][46][47]

Walter J. Levy, director of the Institute for Parapsychology, reported on a series of successful ESP experiments involving computer-controlled manipulation of non-human subjects, including eggs and rats. His experiments showed very high positive results. Because the subjects were non-human, and because the experimental environment was mostly automated, his successful experiments avoided criticism concerning experimenter effects, and removed the question of the subject's belief as an influence on the outcome.[48] However, Levy's fellow researchers became suspicious about his methods. They found that Levy interfered with data-recording equipment, manually creating fraudulent strings of positive results. Rhine fired Levy and reported the fraud in a number of articles.[49][50]

Many spiritualist mediums used fraud, and some were exposed by early psychical researchers such as Richard Hodgson[51] and Harry Price.[52] In the 1920s, magician and escapologist Harry Houdini said that researchers and observers had not created experimental procedures which absolutely preclude fraud.[53] In 1979, magician and debunker James Randi perpetrated a hoax, now referred to as Project Alpha. Randi recruited two young magicians and sent them under cover to Washington University's McDonnell Laboratory with the specific aim of exposing the credulity and poor experimental methods thought to be common in parapsychology. Randi reports that both of his recruits deceived experimenters over a period of four years with demonstrations of supposed telekinetic metal bending.[54] Such alleged methodological failures have been cited as evidence that most, if not all, extraordinary results in parapsychology derive from error or fraud. The use of trickery or deception is accepted and practiced in many psychology experiments.[55] The entry Extrasensory Perception: Lessons from a magician (James Randi) appears in the text book, Psychology by Carole Wade and Carol Tavris, Harper Collins, 1990, p. 197. The lesson taught is "one's sense impressions of reality are not the same as reality."

Criticism of experimental results

Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is scientific, they are not satisfied with its experimental results.[56][43] Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful experimental results in psi research are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to genuine psi effects.[57][58][59][60] For example, the data from the PEAR laboratory has been criticized by researchers such as statistics professor Jessica Utts and psychologist Ray Hyman. Utts has stated that these experiments suffered numerous problems with regard to randomization, statistical baselines and the application of statistical models, and concluded that the significance values quoted in the experiments were meaningless due to defects in experimental and statistical procedures of the studies.[61]

Because psi is a negatively defined concept, a typical measure of the evidence for such phenomena in parapsychological experiments is statistical deviation from chance expectation. However, critics point out that statistical deviation from chance is, strictly speaking, only evidence of a statistical anomaly, or that some unknown variable was causing the deviation from chance. Hyman contends that even if experiments could be made to reproduce the findings of certain parapsychological studies under specific conditions, this would be a far cry from concluding that psychic functioning has been demonstrated.[62] It has also been stated that assuming psi exists is affirming the consequent or begging the question. Reasoning that (1) if a person is psychic, then that individual will do better than chance in experiments, and (2) since that person does better than chance, then, (3) that person must be psychic, would be considered the fallacy of affirming the consequent.[63]

Selection bias and meta-analysis

Selective reporting has been offered by critics as an explanation for the positive results reported by parapsychologists. Selective reporting is sometimes referred to as a "file drawer" problem, which arises when only positive study results are made public, while studies with negative or null results are not made public.[34] Selective reporting has a compounded effect on meta-analysis, which is a statistical technique that aggregates the results of many studies in order to generate sufficient statistical power to demonstrate a result that the individual studies themselves could not demonstrate at a statistically significant level. For example, a recent meta-analysis combined 380 studies on psychokinesis,[33] including data from the PEAR lab. It concluded that, although there is a statistically significant overall effect, it is not consistent and relatively few negative studies would cancel it out. Consequently, biased publication of positive results could be the cause.[26]

The popularity of meta-analysis in parapsychology has been criticized by numerous researchers, and is often seen as troublesome even within parapsychology itself.[64] Critics have said that parapsychologists misuse meta-analysis to create the incorrect impression that statistically significant results have been obtained which indicate the existence of psi phenomena.[65]

Researcher J. E. Kennedy has argued that concerns over the use of meta-analysis in science and medicine apply as well to problems present in parapsychological meta-analysis. As a post-hoc analysis, critics emphasize the opportunity the method presents to produce biased outcomes via the selection of cases chosen for study, methods employed, and other key criteria. Critics claim analogous problems with meta-analysis have been documented in medicine, where it has been shown different investigators performing meta-analyses of the same set of studies have reached contradictory conclusions.[66]

Organizations and publications

The lack of acceptance by mainstream science has led to a decline in academic ties to parapsychological research.[26] Still, there are some university laboratories that continue to conduct parapsychological experiments. Among these are the Koestler Parapsychology Unit at the University of Edinburgh;[67] the Parapsychology Research Group at Liverpool Hope University;[68] the VERITAS Research Program at the University of Arizona;[69] the Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit of Liverpool John Moores University;[70] the Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes at the University of Northampton;[71] and the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit at Goldsmiths University of London.[72] The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, a well-known laboratory that conducted psychokinesis experiments, closed in February 2007.[73]

Research organizations include the Parapsychological Association;[74] the Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the Journal of Society for Psychical Research;[75] the American Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research;[76] the Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology, publisher of the Journal of Parapsychology;[77] the Parapsychology Foundation, publisher of the International Journal of Parapsychology;[78] and the Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research, publisher of the Australian Journal of Parapsychology.[79] The European Journal of Parapsychology is independently published.[80]

Organizations that encourage a critical examination of parapsychology and parapsychological research include the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, publisher of the Skeptical Inquirer;[81] and the James Randi Educational Foundation, founded by magician and skeptic James Randi.[82]

See also

References

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