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==[[Insect migration]]== |
==[[Insect migration]]== |
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| + | *[[List of migratory insects]] |
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===[[Lepidoptera migration]]=== |
===[[Lepidoptera migration]]=== |
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| + | *[[List of migratory lepidoptera]] |
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==[[Fish migration]]== |
==[[Fish migration]]== |
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| + | *[[List of migratory fish]] |
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==[[Bird migration]]== |
==[[Bird migration]]== |
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| + | *[[List of migratory birds]] |
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| − | These birds migrate |
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| + | |||
| − | *[[Long-tailed Jaeger]] |
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==[[Mammal migration]]== |
==[[Mammal migration]]== |
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*[[Whale migration]] |
*[[Whale migration]] |
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| + | *[[List of migratory mammals]] |
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| − | The following mammals migrate |
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| + | |||
| − | *[[Bats]] |
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| + | ==Effects of migration on other species== |
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| − | *[[Porcupine caribou]] |
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| + | ==Mammals== |
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| − | *[[Pronghorn]] |
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| − | *[[Reindeer]] |
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| + | Annual breeding cycles sometimes apply to mammals, with regulating environmental effects including seasonal temperature variation and food availability. Migration patterns of a mammal may sometimes govern breeding times. The [[Polar Bear]] is an example of a mammal whose breeding locations are influenced by migration movements of this species to the seasonal [[Arctic pack ice]]s. In particular the Polar Bears who breed in Wapusk National Park need to migrate to the Hudson Bay pack ice.<ref>C.M. Hogan, 2008</ref> |
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| − | ==[[Wildebeest]]== |
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| − | [[File:Wbeest Mara.jpg|thumb|thumb|right|Wildebeest herding and following zebra in The [[Serengeti National Park]] ([[Tanzania]]). During these migrations, wildebeest spend ten months per year in the Serengeti National Park and two months in the [[Masai Mara]], ([[Kenya]]).]] |
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| − | Wildebeest are famous for their annual long-distance [[wikt:migration|migration]], seemingly timed to coincide with the annual pattern of rainfall and grass growth. The timing of their migrations in both the rainy and dry seasons can vary considerably (by months) from year to year. At the end of the rainy season (May or June in East Africa), wildebeest migrate to dry-season areas in response to a lack of surface (drinking) water. When the rainy season begins again (months later), animals quickly move back to their wet-season ranges. Factors suspected to affect migration include food abundance, surface water availability, predators and phosphorus content in grasses. Phosphorus is a crucial element for all life forms, particularly for lactating female bovids. As a result during the rainy season, wildebeest select grazing areas that contain particularly high phosphorus levels.<ref name=ulfstrand /> One study found, in addition to phosphorus, wildebeest select ranges containing grass with relatively high nitrogen content.<ref name=benshahar>{{cite journal|last=Ben-Shahar|first=Raphael|coauthors=Malcolm J. Coe|title=The Relationships between Soil Factors, Grass Nutrients, and the Foraging Behaviour of Wildebeest and Zebra|journal=Oecologia|year=1992|volume=90|issue=3|pages=422–428|doi=10.1007/BF00317701}}</ref> Large-scale wildebeest migration is quite likely a consequence of decisions being made by individuals at multiple spatial scales, involving a balance of food abundance, food quality, local density of other wildebeest, social interactions, surface water, perceived predation risk, and culturally (or possibly genetically) learned routes and ranges. |
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| − | [[File:Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG|thumb|right|Wildebeest in Maasai Mara during The Great Migration]] |
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| − | Numerous documentaries feature wildebeest crossing rivers, with many being eaten by [[crocodiles]] or drowning in the attempt. While having the appearance of a frenzy, recent research has shown a herd of wildebeest possesses what is known as a "[[swarm intelligence]]", whereby the animals systematically explore and overcome the obstacle as one.<ref>{{cite web|title= Wildebeest Migration – Must See on African Safari '''Vacation''' |url= http://tanzanear.com/blog/wildebeest-migration-must-see-on-african-safari-vacation/ |publisher= Tanzenar |date=4 June 2009 |accessdate=16 December 2010}}</ref> Major predators that feed on wildebeest include the lion, [[hyena]], [[cheetah]], [[leopard]], and [[crocodile]], which seem to favour the wildebeest.<ref name="National geographic"/> Wildebeest, however, are very strong, and can inflict considerable injury even to a lion. Wildebeest have a maximum running speed of around {{convert|80|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web| last = PBS| title = Animal Guide: Blue Wildebeest| work = Nature| accessdate = 8 January 2013| url = http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/animal-guides/animal-guide-blue-wildebeest/3255/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9780521576734| last = McGowan| first = Christopher| title = A Practical Guide to Vertebrate Mechanics| date = 28 February 1999|page=162}}</ref> The primary defensive tactic is herding, where the young animals are protected by the older, larger ones, while the herd runs as a group. Typically, the predators attempt to cut out a young or ill animal and attack without having to worry about the herd. Wildebeest have developed additional sophisticated cooperative behaviours, such as animals taking turns sleeping while others stand guard against a night attack by invading predators. Scientists are unsure how much is learned behaviour and how much is instinct.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} Wildebeest migrations are closely followed by [[vultures]], as wildebeest carcasses are an important source of food for these scavengers. The vultures consume about 70% of the wildebeest carcasses available. Decreases in the number of migrating wildebeest have also had a negative effect on the vultures.<ref name=Virani>{{cite journal|last=Virani|first=Munir Z.|coauthors=Corinne Kendall, Peter Njoroge, Simon Thomsett|title=Major Declines in the Abundance of Vultures and Other Scavenging Raptors in and around the Masai Mara Ecosystem, Kenya|journal=Biological Conservation|year=2011|volume=144|pages=746–752|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.024|issue=2}}</ref> In the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania, wildebeest may help facilitate the migration of other, smaller-bodied grazers, such as [[Thomson's gazelle]]s (''Eudorcas thomsonii''), which eat the new-growth grasses stimulated by wildebeest foraging. |
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==Human cultural responses to animal migration== |
==Human cultural responses to animal migration== |
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Latest revision as of 10:35, 10 August 2013
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mtDNA-based chart of large human migrations.
Migration occurs when living organisms move from one biome to another. In most cases organisms migrate to avoid local shortages of food, usually caused by winter or overpopulation. Animals may also migrate to a certain location to breed.
Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis. It is a ubiquitous phenomenon, found in all major animal groups, including birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.[1] The trigger for the migration may be local climate, local availability of food, the season of the year or for mating reasons.[2] To be counted as a true migration, and not just a local dispersal or irruption, the movement of the animals should be an annual or seasonal occurrence, such as birds migrating south for the winter; wildebeest migrating annually for seasonal grazing; or a major habitat change as part of their life, such as young Atlantic salmon leaving the river of their birth when they have reached a few inches in size.[3]
Definition
Migration can take very different forms in different species and as such, there is no simple accepted definition of migration. One of the most commonly used definitions, proposed by Kennedy[4] is
“Migratory behavior is persistent and straightened out movement effected by the animal’s own locomotory exertions or by its active embarkation upon a vehicle. It depends on some temporary inhibition of station keeping responses but promotes their eventual disinhibition and recurrence.”
Migration has also been described as a term that describes the four related concepts:[1]
- persistent, straight, movement behavior
- relocation of an individual on a greater scale (both spatially and temporally) than its normal daily activities
- seasonal ‘to-and-fro’ movement of a population between two areas
- movement leading to the redistribution of individuals within a population
Migration Types
Migration can be either obligate, meaning individuals must migrate, or facultative, meaning individuals can choose to migrate or not.
Within a migratory species or even within a single population, often not all individuals migrate. Complete migration is when all individuals migrate, partial migration is when some individuals migrate while others do not, and differential migration is when the difference between migratory and non-migratory individuals is based on age or sex (for example).[1]
While most migratory movements occur on an annual cycle, some daily movements are also referred to as migration. For example, many aquatic animals make a vertical migration (Diel vertical migration), travelling a few hundred metres up and down the water column.[5] Similarly, some jellyfish make daily horizontal migrations, traveling a few hundred metres across a lake.[6]
Irregular (non-cyclical) migrations such as irruptions can occur under pressure of famine, overpopulation of a locality, or some more obscure influence.[7]
Range shifts in response to climate change
Range shifts are a natural response to climate change. Species with sufficient levels of mobility may respond quickly to environmental change, with species capable of undertaking long migratory movements likely to shift ranges first (Lundy et al., 2010).
“The range of plants and animals are moving in response to recent changes in climate (Loarie 2009).” As Temperature increases, ecosystems are particularly threatened when their niche has, essentially no were else to move to. This hindrance is particularly prevalent in mountain ranges for example. The speed at which climate is changing is derived from ratio of temporal and spatial gradients of mean annual near-surface temperature.
“Mountainous biomes require the slowest velocities to keep pace with climate change. In contrast, flatter biomes, such as flooded grasslands, mangroves and deserts require much greater velocities. Overall, there is a strong correlation between topographic slope and velocity from temperature change (Loarie 2009).”
Temperatures are expected to rise more than average in higher latitudes and at higher elevations. Animals living at lower elevations could migrate to higher elevations in response to climate change as temperatures rises. Whereas animals in higher elevations will eventually ‘run out of mountain’. “Results confirmed that protected large-scale elevation gradients retain diversity by allowing species to migrate in response to climate and vegetation change. The long-recognized importance of protecting landscapes has never been greater (Moritz 2008).”
Over the past 40 years, species have been extending their ranges toward the poles and populations have been migrating, developing, or reproducing earlier in the spring than previously (Huntley 2007).
Multiple generation migration
- Further information: Lepidoptera migration
A christmas island red crab on its migration.
In some insect species, such as the monarch butterfly and the painted lady butterfly, the whole migration is not carried out by one individual. Instead the butterflies mate and reproduce on the journey, and successive generations travel the next stage of the migration.[8]
Insect migration
- List of migratory insects
Lepidoptera migration
Fish migration
- List of migratory fish
Bird migration
Mammal migration
Effects of migration on other species
Mammals
Annual breeding cycles sometimes apply to mammals, with regulating environmental effects including seasonal temperature variation and food availability. Migration patterns of a mammal may sometimes govern breeding times. The Polar Bear is an example of a mammal whose breeding locations are influenced by migration movements of this species to the seasonal Arctic pack ices. In particular the Polar Bears who breed in Wapusk National Park need to migrate to the Hudson Bay pack ice.[9]
Human cultural responses to animal migration
Before the phenomenon of animal migration was understood, various folklore and erroneous explanations sprang up to account for the disappearance or sudden arrival of birds in an area. In Ancient Greece, Aristotle proposed that robins turned into redstarts when summer arrived.[10] The barnacle goose was explained in European Medieval bestiaries and manuscripts as either growing like fruit on trees, or developing from goose barnacles on pieces of driftwood.[11] Another example is the swallow, which at various times was suggested to hibernate either underwater, buried in muddy riverbanks, or in hollow trees.
Mexican free-tailed bats on their long journey of flight.
See also
- Animal collective behavior
- Animal homing
- Animal navigation
- Human migration
- Migration
- Natal homing
- Path integration
- Tracking animal migration
References & Bibliography
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Hugh Dingle and V. Alistair Drake (2007). What is migration?. BioScience 57: 113–121.
- ↑ http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/activity/why-animals-migrate/?ar_a=1&ar_r=999
- ↑ David Attenborough (1990). The Trials of Life, London: Collins/BBCBooks.
- ↑ (1985) "Migration: Behavioral and ecological." Migration: Mechanisms and Adaptive Significance: Contributions in Marine Science, 5–26, Marine Science Institute.
- ↑ I.A. McLaren (1974). Demographic strategy of vertical migration by a marine copepod.. The American Naturalist 108 (959): 91–102.
- ↑ W.M. Hamner, I.R. Hauri (1981). Long-distance horizontal migrations of zooplankton (Scyphomedusae: Mastigias).. Limnology and Oceanography 26 (3): 414–423.
- ↑ Template:Cite Americana
- ↑ Stefanescu, C., Páramo, F., Åkesson, S., Alarcón, M., Ávila, A., Brereton, T., Carnicer, J., Cassar, L. F., Fox, R., Heliölä, J., Hill, J. K., Hirneisen, N., Kjellén, N., Kühn, E., Kuussaari, M., Leskinen, M., Liechti, F., Musche, M., Regan, E. C., Reynolds, D. R., Roy, D. B., Ryrholm, N., Schmaljohann, H., Settele, J., Thomas, C. D., van Swaay, C. and Chapman, J. W. (2012), Multi-generational long-distance migration of insects: studying the painted lady butterfly in the Western Palaearctic. Ecography. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07738.x
- ↑ C.M. Hogan, 2008
- ↑ The Earthlife Web - What is Bird Migration.
- ↑ Medieval Bestiary - Barnacle Goose.
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