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''Thinking'' involves the deeply cereberal manipulation of [[information]], as when we form [[concepts]], engage in [[problem solving]], [[reason]] and make [[choice|decision]]s.
 
''Thinking'' involves the deeply cereberal manipulation of [[information]], as when we form [[concepts]], engage in [[problem solving]], [[reason]] and make [[choice|decision]]s.
 
Thinking is a higher [[cognitive]] function and the analysis of thinking processes is part of [[cognitive psychology]].
 
Thinking is a higher [[cognitive]] function and the analysis of thinking processes is part of [[cognitive psychology]].
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==Etymology and usage==
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The word comes from [[Old English]] ''þoht'', or ''geþoht'', from stem of ''þencan'' "to conceive of in the mind, consider".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Thought |title=Etymology of Thought |accessdate=2009-05-22 |last=Harper |first=Douglas |work=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref>
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In common language, the word ''to think'' covers numerous and diverse psychological activities. It often refers merely to the act of being [[conscious]] of something, especially if that thing is outside the immediate environment ("It made me think of my grandmother"). It is sometimes a synonym for "tending to believe," especially with less than full confidence ("I think that it will rain, but I am not sure"). At other times it denotes the degree of [[attention|attentiveness]] ("I did it without thinking"). Many other mental activities—many of which may shade into each other—can be covered by the word, such as interpreting, evaluating, imagining, planning, and remembering.
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In common usage, "thought" is often attributed to animals, machines, other non-human objects, and phenomena. The exact meaning of such usage varies as well. The attribution of thought or thought processes to non-human objects and phenomena (especially computers) could be considered [[anthropomorphism]], though such categorizations have been contested by such computer scientists as [[Alan Turing]] (see [[Computing Machinery and Intelligence]]). As regards animals, to what extent different animals think depends on the exact definition of the word that is given, so it may be taken literally or regarded as anthropomorphic.
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Little is written about the actual content of thoughts. It would seem we do not think in complete sentences. We think fragments, ideas embodied in words. We don't think "I mailed the package to my sister this morning", we think "mailed package sister morning". If we're reading a book, our thoughts include the story line and our reflections on the story line. But our thoughts can contain only one idea at a time, so if the plot is "hero runs after murderer" and our reflection is "he was foolish to trust the villain", our thought is something like "hero foolish trust run after murderer villain".{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}}
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Our thoughts may include [[image]]s.
   
   
 
==Basic process==
 
==Basic process==
 
The basic mechanics of the human [[mind]] reflect a process of [[pattern matching]] or rather [[pattern recognition|recognition]]. In a "moment of [[Human self-reflection|reflection]]", new situations and new [[experience]]s are judged against [[recall]]ed ones and [[judgement]]s are made. In order to make these judgements, the [[intellect]] maintains present [[experience]] and sorts relevant past experience. It does this while keeping present and past experience distinct and separate. The intellect can mix, match, merge, sift, and sort [[concept]]s, perceptions, and experience. This process is called [[reasoning]]. [[Logic]] is the science of [[reasoning]]. The awareness of this process of reasoning is access consciousness (see philosopher [[Ned Block]]).
 
The basic mechanics of the human [[mind]] reflect a process of [[pattern matching]] or rather [[pattern recognition|recognition]]. In a "moment of [[Human self-reflection|reflection]]", new situations and new [[experience]]s are judged against [[recall]]ed ones and [[judgement]]s are made. In order to make these judgements, the [[intellect]] maintains present [[experience]] and sorts relevant past experience. It does this while keeping present and past experience distinct and separate. The intellect can mix, match, merge, sift, and sort [[concept]]s, perceptions, and experience. This process is called [[reasoning]]. [[Logic]] is the science of [[reasoning]]. The awareness of this process of reasoning is access consciousness (see philosopher [[Ned Block]]).
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==Philosophy==
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{{Main|Phenomenology_(philosophy)}}
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{{Main|Philosophy of mind}}
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{{Cquote|What is most thought-provoking in these thought-provoking times, is that we are still not thinking.<ref>Martin Heidegger, ''What is Called Thinking?''</ref> – [[Martin Heidegger]]}}
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[[File:ThinkingMan Rodin.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Thinker]], sculpture at the [[Musée Rodin]] in [[Paris]]]]
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The phenomenology movement in philosophy saw a radical change in the way in which we understand thought. Martin Heidegger's phenomenological analyses of the existential structure of man in [[Being and Time]] throw new light on the issue of thinking, unsettling traditional cognitive or rational interpretations of man which affect the way we understand thought. The notion of the fundamental role of non-cognitive understanding in rendering possible thematic consciousness informed the discussion surrounding [[Artificial Intelligence]] during the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>Dreyfus, Hubert. Dreyfus, Stuart. ''Mind Over Machine''. Macmillan, 1987</ref>
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Phenomenology, however, is not the only approach to thinking in modern Western philosophy. Philosophy of mind is a branch of [[analytic philosophy|modern analytic]] [[philosophy]] that studies the nature of the [[mind]], [[mental event]]s, [[mental function]]s, [[mental property|mental properties]], [[consciousness]] and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind-body problem, i.e. the relationship of the mind to the body, is commonly seen as the central issue in philosophy of mind, although there are other issues concerning the nature of the mind that do not involve its relation to the physical body.<ref name="Kim1"/>
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===The mind-body problem===
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{{Main|Mind-body dichotomy}}
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The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists between [[mind]]s, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes.<ref name="Kim1">{{cite book |last=Kim |first=J. |editor=Honderich, Ted |title=Problems in the Philosophy of Mind. Oxford Companion to Philosophy |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford}}<!--Kim, J., "Problems in the Philosophy of Mind". ''[[Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]''. Ted Honderich (ed.) Oxford:Oxford University Press. 1995.--></ref> The main aim of philosophers working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes, and how—or even if—minds are affected by and can affect the body.
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Human perceptual experiences depend on [[stimulation|stimuli]] which arrive at one's various [[sensory system|sensory organs]] from the external world and these stimuli cause changes in one's mental state, ultimately causing one to feel a sensation, which may be pleasant or unpleasant. Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how someone's [[propositional attitude]]s (e.g. beliefs and desires) can cause that individual's [[neuron]]s to fire and his muscles to contract in exactly the correct manner. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted [[epistemologist]]s and philosophers of mind from at least the time of [[René Descartes]].<ref>Companion to Metaphysics, By Jaegwon Kim, Gary S. Rosenkrantz, Ernest Sosa, Contributor Jaegwon Kim, Edition: 2, Published by Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, ISBN 1-4051-5298-2, ISBN 978-1-4051-5298-3</ref>
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===Functionalism vs. embodiment===
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The above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. However the apparently irresolvable mind-body problem is said to be overcome, and bypassed, by the [[Embodied cognition]] approach, with its roots in the work of Heidegger, [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]], [[Vygotsky]], [[Merleau-Ponty]] and the pragmatist [[John Dewey]].<ref>Varela, Francisco J., Thompson, Evan T., and Rosch, Eleanor. (1992). The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-72021-3</ref><ref>Cowart, Monica 2004 Embodied Cognition
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The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN 2161-0002, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/embodcog/], retrieved 27 Feb 2012.</ref>
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This approach states that the classical approach of separating the mind and analysing its processes is misguided: instead, we should see that the mind, actions of an embodied agent, and the environment it perceives and envisions, are all parts of a whole which determine each other. Therefore functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the mind-body problem which cannot be solved.<ref>Di Paolo, Ezequiel
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Shallow and Deep Embodiment
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University of Sussex, 29.10.2009 12:43
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Duration: 1:11:38
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https://cast.switch.ch/vod/clips/74nrkbwys
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(Video, retrieved 27 Feb 2012
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[https://cast.switch.ch/vod/clips/74nrkbwys]
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</ref>
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==Biology==
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{{Main|Neurons}}
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A neuron (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable [[cell (biology)|cell]] in the [[nervous system]] that processes and transmits information by electrochemical [[signal (biology)|signaling]]. Neurons are the core components of the [[Human brain|brain]], the [[vertebrate]] [[spinal cord]], the [[invertebrate]] [[ventral nerve cord]], and the peripheral nerves. A number of specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the [[sense|sensory organs]] that then send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause [[muscle contraction]]s and affect [[gland]]s. [[Interneuron]]s connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]], and communicate the presence of stimuli to the central nervous system, which processes that information and sends responses to other parts of the body for action. Neurons do not go through [[mitosis]], and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed,{{dubious|date=March 2010}} although [[astrocytes]] have been observed to turn into neurons as they are sometimes [[pluripotent]].
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==Psychology==
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{{Main|Cognitive psychology}}
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Psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem. Cognitive psychology is a branch of [[psychology]] that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. The school of thought arising from this approach is known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] which is interested in how people mentally represent information processing. It had its foundations in the [[Gestalt psychology]] of [[Max Wertheimer]], [[Wolfgang Köhler]], and [[Kurt Koffka]],<ref>Gestalt Theory, By Max Wertheimer, Published by Hayes Barton Press, 1944, ISBN 1-59377-695-0, ISBN 978-1-59377-695-4</ref> and in the work of [[Jean Piaget]], who provided a theory of stages/phases that describe children's cognitive development.
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Cognitive psychologists use [[psychophysics|psychophysical]] and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. They study various aspects of thinking, including the [[psychology of reasoning]], and how people make decisions and choices, solve problems, as well as engage in creative discovery and imaginative thought. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of [[algorithm]]s—rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or [[heuristics]]—rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. [[Cognitive science]] differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that are intended to simulate human behavior are implemented or implementable on a computer. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.
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In [[developmental psychology]], [[Jean Piaget]] was a pioneer in the study of the development of thought from birth to maturity. In his [[theory of cognitive development]], thought is based on actions on the environment. That is, Piaget suggests that the environment is understood through assimilations of objects in the available schemes of action and these accommodate to the objects to the extent that the available schemes fall short of the demands. As a result of this interplay between assimilation and accommodation, thought develops through a sequence of stages that differ qualititatively from each other in mode of representation and complexity of inference and understanding. That is, thought evolves from being based on perceptions and actions at the sensorimotor stage in the first two years of life to internal representations in early childhood. Subsequently, representations are gradually organized into logical structures which first operate on the concrete properties of the reality, in the stage of concrete operations, and then operate on abstract principles that organize concrete properties, in the stage of formal operations.<ref>Piaget, J. (1951). ''Psychology of Intelligence''. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul</ref> In recent years, the Piagetian conception of thought was integrated with information processing conceptions. Thus, thought is considered as the result of mechanisms that are responsible for the representation and processing of information. In this conception, [[speed of processing]], [[cognitive control]], and [[working memory]] are the main functions underlying thought. In the [[neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]], the development of thought is considered to come from increasing speed of processing, enhanced [[cognitive control]], and increasing [[working memory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Demetriou |first=A. |year=1998 |title=Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), ''Life-span developmental psychology'' (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley }}</ref>
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==Psychoanalysis==
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"Id", "ego", and "super-ego" are the three parts of the "[[psychic apparatus]]" defined in [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[ego psychology|structural model]] of the psyche; they are the three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described. According to this model, the uncoordinated instinctual trends are the "id"; the organized realistic part of the psyche is the "ego," and the critical and moralizing function the "super-ego."<ref>{{cite book |title=Teach Yourself Freud |first= Ruth |last=Snowden |edition= illustrated |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2006 |ISBN= 978-0-07-147274-6 |page=107 }}</ref>
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The unconscious was considered by Freud throughout the evolution of his [[psychoanalytic]] theory a [[sentient]] force of [[Will (philosophy)|will]] influenced by human desire and yet operating well below the perceptual [[conscious mind]]. For Freud, the unconscious is the storehouse of instinctual desires, needs, and psychic drives. While past thoughts and reminiscences may be concealed from immediate consciousness, they direct the thoughts and feelings of the individual from the realm of the unconscious.<ref>Geraskov, Emil Asenov The internal contradiction and the unconscious sources of activity. The Journal of Psychology November 1, 1994 Retrieved from [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-16528826.html] April 17, 2007</ref>
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For [[psychoanalysis]], the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, rather only what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what the person is averse to knowing consciously. In a sense this view places the self in relationship to their unconscious as an adversary, warring with itself to keep what is unconscious hidden. If a person feels pain, all he can think of is alleviating the pain. Any of his desires, to get rid of pain or enjoy something, command the mind what to do. For Freud, the unconscious was a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of [[psychological repression]]. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects—it expresses itself in the [[symptom]].<ref>The Cambridge companion to Freud, By Jerome Neu, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1991, pg, 29, ISBN 0-521-37779-X, 9780521377799</ref>
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==Sociology==
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[[Image:Thought bubble.svg|thumb|right|100px|This is a "thought bubble". It is an illustration depicting thought.]]
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[[File:Nothing gets in the way.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Graffiti]] on the wall: "'to think for myself' became less favorable".]]
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{{Main|Social psychology}}
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Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact. Scholars in this [[interdisciplinary]] area are typically either [[psychology|psychologists]] or [[sociologists]], though all social psychologists employ both the [[individual]] and the [[group (sociology)|group]] as their [[unit of analysis|units of analysis]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=hrydA45eCk0C&q=social+psychology&dq=social+psychology&pgis=1 ''Social Psychology''], David G. Myers, McGraw Hill, 1993. ISBN 0-07-044292-4.</ref>
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Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate [[academic journals]] and [[learned society|professional societies]]. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II.<ref>Sewell, W.H. (1989). Some reflections on the golden age of interdisciplinary social psychology. ''Annual Review of Sociology'', Vol. 15.</ref> Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Nvz5Y8e1N84C ''The Psychology of the Social''], Uwe Flick, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-58851-0.</ref>
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The collective unconscious, sometimes known as collective subconscious, is a term of [[analytical psychology]], [[coined]] by [[Carl Jung]]. It is a part of the [[unconscious mind]], shared by a [[society]], a people, or all [[human]]ity, in an interconnected system that is the product of all common experiences and contains such concepts as [[science]], [[religion]], and [[morality]]. While [[Freud]] did not distinguish between an "individual psychology" and a "collective psychology," Jung distinguished the collective unconscious from the [[personal unconscious|personal]] [[unconscious mind|subconscious]] particular to each human being. The collective unconscious is also known as "a reservoir of the experiences of our species."<ref>Jensen, Peter S., Mrazek, David, Knapp, Penelope K., Steinberg, Laurence, Pfeffer, Cynthia, Schowalter, John, & Shapiro, Theodore. (Dec 1997) Evolution and revolution in child psychiatry: ADHD as a disorder of adaptation. (attention-deficit hyperactivity syndrome). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36. p. 1672. (10). July 14, 2007.</ref>
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In the "Definitions" chapter of Jung's [[wikt:seminal|seminal]] work ''Psychological Types'', under the definition of "collective" Jung references ''representations collectives'', a term coined by [[Lucien Lévy-Bruhl]] in his 1910 book ''How Natives Think''. Jung says this is what he describes as the collective unconscious. Freud, on the other hand, did not accept the idea of a collective unconscious
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==Conceptualization==
 
==Conceptualization==
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* [[Abstraction]]
 
* [[Abstraction]]
 
* [[Autistic thinking]]
 
* [[Autistic thinking]]
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* [[Critical thinking]]
 
* [[Divergent thinking]]
 
* [[Divergent thinking]]
 
* [[Index of articles concerning thinking]]
 
* [[Index of articles concerning thinking]]
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* [[Language and thought]]
 
* [[Language and thought]]
 
* [[Intrapersonal communication]]
 
* [[Intrapersonal communication]]
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* ''[[Si (concept)|Si]]'', a Chinese concept of attentive, non-rational thought or reflection
* [[Reasoning]]
 
 
* [[Stream of consciousness (psychology)]]
 
* [[Stream of consciousness (psychology)]]
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* [[Thought experiment]]
 
* [[Train of thought]]
 
* [[Train of thought]]
   
 
==References==
 
==References==
 
*[[Eric Baum]] (2004). ''What is Thought'', Chapter Two: The Mind is a Computer Program. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02548-5
 
*[[Eric Baum]] (2004). ''What is Thought'', Chapter Two: The Mind is a Computer Program. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02548-5
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==Further reading==
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*Anderson, J.R. (1990) 'The Adaptive Character of Thought'. Hillsdale NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum
   
 
[[Category:Cognition]]
 
[[Category:Cognition]]

Revision as of 11:01, 29 October 2012

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Efez Celsus Library 4 RB

Personification of thought (Greek Εννοια) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey

Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. Words referring to similar concepts and processes include cognition, sentience, consciousness, idea, and imagination.

Thinking involves the deeply cereberal manipulation of information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thinking is a higher cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is part of cognitive psychology.

Etymology and usage

The word comes from Old English þoht, or geþoht, from stem of þencan "to conceive of in the mind, consider".[1]

In common language, the word to think covers numerous and diverse psychological activities. It often refers merely to the act of being conscious of something, especially if that thing is outside the immediate environment ("It made me think of my grandmother"). It is sometimes a synonym for "tending to believe," especially with less than full confidence ("I think that it will rain, but I am not sure"). At other times it denotes the degree of attentiveness ("I did it without thinking"). Many other mental activities—many of which may shade into each other—can be covered by the word, such as interpreting, evaluating, imagining, planning, and remembering.

In common usage, "thought" is often attributed to animals, machines, other non-human objects, and phenomena. The exact meaning of such usage varies as well. The attribution of thought or thought processes to non-human objects and phenomena (especially computers) could be considered anthropomorphism, though such categorizations have been contested by such computer scientists as Alan Turing (see Computing Machinery and Intelligence). As regards animals, to what extent different animals think depends on the exact definition of the word that is given, so it may be taken literally or regarded as anthropomorphic.

Little is written about the actual content of thoughts. It would seem we do not think in complete sentences. We think fragments, ideas embodied in words. We don't think "I mailed the package to my sister this morning", we think "mailed package sister morning". If we're reading a book, our thoughts include the story line and our reflections on the story line. But our thoughts can contain only one idea at a time, so if the plot is "hero runs after murderer" and our reflection is "he was foolish to trust the villain", our thought is something like "hero foolish trust run after murderer villain".[citation needed]

Our thoughts may include images.


Basic process

The basic mechanics of the human mind reflect a process of pattern matching or rather recognition. In a "moment of reflection", new situations and new experiences are judged against recalled ones and judgements are made. In order to make these judgements, the intellect maintains present experience and sorts relevant past experience. It does this while keeping present and past experience distinct and separate. The intellect can mix, match, merge, sift, and sort concepts, perceptions, and experience. This process is called reasoning. Logic is the science of reasoning. The awareness of this process of reasoning is access consciousness (see philosopher Ned Block).

Philosophy

Main article: Phenomenology_(philosophy)
Main article: Philosophy of mind
What is most thought-provoking in these thought-provoking times, is that we are still not thinking.[2] – Martin Heidegger
File:ThinkingMan Rodin.jpg

The Thinker, sculpture at the Musée Rodin in Paris

The phenomenology movement in philosophy saw a radical change in the way in which we understand thought. Martin Heidegger's phenomenological analyses of the existential structure of man in Being and Time throw new light on the issue of thinking, unsettling traditional cognitive or rational interpretations of man which affect the way we understand thought. The notion of the fundamental role of non-cognitive understanding in rendering possible thematic consciousness informed the discussion surrounding Artificial Intelligence during the 1970s and 1980s.[3]

Phenomenology, however, is not the only approach to thinking in modern Western philosophy. Philosophy of mind is a branch of modern analytic philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind-body problem, i.e. the relationship of the mind to the body, is commonly seen as the central issue in philosophy of mind, although there are other issues concerning the nature of the mind that do not involve its relation to the physical body.[4]

The mind-body problem

Main article: Mind-body dichotomy

The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes.[4] The main aim of philosophers working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes, and how—or even if—minds are affected by and can affect the body.

Human perceptual experiences depend on stimuli which arrive at one's various sensory organs from the external world and these stimuli cause changes in one's mental state, ultimately causing one to feel a sensation, which may be pleasant or unpleasant. Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how someone's propositional attitudes (e.g. beliefs and desires) can cause that individual's neurons to fire and his muscles to contract in exactly the correct manner. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes.[5]

Functionalism vs. embodiment

The above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. However the apparently irresolvable mind-body problem is said to be overcome, and bypassed, by the Embodied cognition approach, with its roots in the work of Heidegger, Piaget, Vygotsky, Merleau-Ponty and the pragmatist John Dewey.[6][7]

This approach states that the classical approach of separating the mind and analysing its processes is misguided: instead, we should see that the mind, actions of an embodied agent, and the environment it perceives and envisions, are all parts of a whole which determine each other. Therefore functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the mind-body problem which cannot be solved.[8]

Biology

Main article: Neurons

A neuron (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves. A number of specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions and affect glands. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the central nervous system, which processes that information and sends responses to other parts of the body for action. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed,[dubious] although astrocytes have been observed to turn into neurons as they are sometimes pluripotent.

Psychology

Main article: Cognitive psychology

Psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. The school of thought arising from this approach is known as cognitivism which is interested in how people mentally represent information processing. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka,[9] and in the work of Jean Piaget, who provided a theory of stages/phases that describe children's cognitive development.

Cognitive psychologists use psychophysical and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. They study various aspects of thinking, including the psychology of reasoning, and how people make decisions and choices, solve problems, as well as engage in creative discovery and imaginative thought. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms—rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristics—rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. Cognitive science differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that are intended to simulate human behavior are implemented or implementable on a computer. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.

In developmental psychology, Jean Piaget was a pioneer in the study of the development of thought from birth to maturity. In his theory of cognitive development, thought is based on actions on the environment. That is, Piaget suggests that the environment is understood through assimilations of objects in the available schemes of action and these accommodate to the objects to the extent that the available schemes fall short of the demands. As a result of this interplay between assimilation and accommodation, thought develops through a sequence of stages that differ qualititatively from each other in mode of representation and complexity of inference and understanding. That is, thought evolves from being based on perceptions and actions at the sensorimotor stage in the first two years of life to internal representations in early childhood. Subsequently, representations are gradually organized into logical structures which first operate on the concrete properties of the reality, in the stage of concrete operations, and then operate on abstract principles that organize concrete properties, in the stage of formal operations.[10] In recent years, the Piagetian conception of thought was integrated with information processing conceptions. Thus, thought is considered as the result of mechanisms that are responsible for the representation and processing of information. In this conception, speed of processing, cognitive control, and working memory are the main functions underlying thought. In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, the development of thought is considered to come from increasing speed of processing, enhanced cognitive control, and increasing working memory.[11]

Psychoanalysis

"Id", "ego", and "super-ego" are the three parts of the "psychic apparatus" defined in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche; they are the three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described. According to this model, the uncoordinated instinctual trends are the "id"; the organized realistic part of the psyche is the "ego," and the critical and moralizing function the "super-ego."[12]

The unconscious was considered by Freud throughout the evolution of his psychoanalytic theory a sentient force of will influenced by human desire and yet operating well below the perceptual conscious mind. For Freud, the unconscious is the storehouse of instinctual desires, needs, and psychic drives. While past thoughts and reminiscences may be concealed from immediate consciousness, they direct the thoughts and feelings of the individual from the realm of the unconscious.[13]

For psychoanalysis, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, rather only what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what the person is averse to knowing consciously. In a sense this view places the self in relationship to their unconscious as an adversary, warring with itself to keep what is unconscious hidden. If a person feels pain, all he can think of is alleviating the pain. Any of his desires, to get rid of pain or enjoy something, command the mind what to do. For Freud, the unconscious was a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects—it expresses itself in the symptom.[14]

Sociology

File:Thought bubble.svg

This is a "thought bubble". It is an illustration depicting thought.

File:Nothing gets in the way.jpg

Graffiti on the wall: "'to think for myself' became less favorable".

Main article: Social psychology

Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact. Scholars in this interdisciplinary area are typically either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis.[15]

Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional societies. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II.[16] Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.[17]

The collective unconscious, sometimes known as collective subconscious, is a term of analytical psychology, coined by Carl Jung. It is a part of the unconscious mind, shared by a society, a people, or all humanity, in an interconnected system that is the product of all common experiences and contains such concepts as science, religion, and morality. While Freud did not distinguish between an "individual psychology" and a "collective psychology," Jung distinguished the collective unconscious from the personal subconscious particular to each human being. The collective unconscious is also known as "a reservoir of the experiences of our species."[18]

In the "Definitions" chapter of Jung's seminal work Psychological Types, under the definition of "collective" Jung references representations collectives, a term coined by Lucien Lévy-Bruhl in his 1910 book How Natives Think. Jung says this is what he describes as the collective unconscious. Freud, on the other hand, did not accept the idea of a collective unconscious


Conceptualization

Thinking can be modeled by a field (like a mathematical representation of an electro-magnetic field, but with each point in the field a point of consciousness). Patterns are formed and judgements are made within the field. Some philosophers (panpsychists/panexperientialists - see wikibook on consciousness) believe the entire field is conscious in and of itself, a consciousness field. They say consciousness creates thinking, thinking and other brain processes do not create consciousness. Other scientists (for example Bernard Baars) think of it as a workspace. Some philosophers (for example Thomas Nagel) have said they do not have a clue as to how we are aware of our thinking.

A thought can be said to be whatever arises in the dualistic mind. A dualistic mind is one in which the one from which the thought arises considers himself to be separate from other forms. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound, a smell, a touch or even an emotional feeling that arises from the brain.

The Thinker

The Thinker by Rodin, Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Istanbul.

Aids to thinking

  1. Use of models, symbols, diagrams and pictures.
  2. Use of abstraction to simplify the effort of thinking.
  3. Use of metasyntactic variables to simplify the effort of naming.
  4. Use of iteration and recursion to converge on a concept.
  5. Limitation of attention to aid concentration and focus on a concept. Use of peace and quiet to aid concentration.
  6. Goal setting and goal revision. Simply letting the concept percolate in the subconscious, and waiting for the concept to re-surface.
  7. Talking with like-minded people. Resorting to communication with others, if this is allowed.
  8. Working backward from the goal.
  9. Desire for learning.

Pitfalls

  1. Fads.
  2. Self-delusions: inability to confront relevant issues (roadblocks).

See also

References

  • Eric Baum (2004). What is Thought, Chapter Two: The Mind is a Computer Program. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02548-5

Further reading

  • Anderson, J.R. (1990) 'The Adaptive Character of Thought'. Hillsdale NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum
This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).
  1. Harper, Douglas Etymology of Thought. Online Etymology Dictionary. URL accessed on 2009-05-22.
  2. Martin Heidegger, What is Called Thinking?
  3. Dreyfus, Hubert. Dreyfus, Stuart. Mind Over Machine. Macmillan, 1987
  4. 4.0 4.1 Kim, J. (1995). Honderich, Ted Problems in the Philosophy of Mind. Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  5. Companion to Metaphysics, By Jaegwon Kim, Gary S. Rosenkrantz, Ernest Sosa, Contributor Jaegwon Kim, Edition: 2, Published by Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, ISBN 1-4051-5298-2, ISBN 978-1-4051-5298-3
  6. Varela, Francisco J., Thompson, Evan T., and Rosch, Eleanor. (1992). The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-72021-3
  7. Cowart, Monica 2004 Embodied Cognition The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN 2161-0002, [1], retrieved 27 Feb 2012.
  8. Di Paolo, Ezequiel Shallow and Deep Embodiment University of Sussex, 29.10.2009 12:43 Duration: 1:11:38 https://cast.switch.ch/vod/clips/74nrkbwys (Video, retrieved 27 Feb 2012 [2]
  9. Gestalt Theory, By Max Wertheimer, Published by Hayes Barton Press, 1944, ISBN 1-59377-695-0, ISBN 978-1-59377-695-4
  10. Piaget, J. (1951). Psychology of Intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
  11. Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.
  12. Snowden, Ruth (2006). Teach Yourself Freud, illustrated, McGraw-Hill.
  13. Geraskov, Emil Asenov The internal contradiction and the unconscious sources of activity. The Journal of Psychology November 1, 1994 Retrieved from [3] April 17, 2007
  14. The Cambridge companion to Freud, By Jerome Neu, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1991, pg, 29, ISBN 0-521-37779-X, 9780521377799
  15. Social Psychology, David G. Myers, McGraw Hill, 1993. ISBN 0-07-044292-4.
  16. Sewell, W.H. (1989). Some reflections on the golden age of interdisciplinary social psychology. Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 15.
  17. The Psychology of the Social, Uwe Flick, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-58851-0.
  18. Jensen, Peter S., Mrazek, David, Knapp, Penelope K., Steinberg, Laurence, Pfeffer, Cynthia, Schowalter, John, & Shapiro, Theodore. (Dec 1997) Evolution and revolution in child psychiatry: ADHD as a disorder of adaptation. (attention-deficit hyperactivity syndrome). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36. p. 1672. (10). July 14, 2007.