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{{ExpPsy}
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{{ExpPsy}}
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In the fields of [[neuropsychology]], [[personal development]] and [[education]], '''learning''' is one of the most important [[mental]] [[function (engineering)|function]] of humans, animals and artificial [[cognition|cognitive]] systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of [[knowledge]] supported by [[perception|perceived]] [[information]]. It leads to the development of new [[capacity|capacities]], [[skill]]s, [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]], [[understanding]], and [[preference]]s.
  +
Its goal is the increasing of individual and group [[experience]].
  +
Learning functions can be performed by different brain ''[[learning process]]es'', which depend on the mental capacities of learning subject, the type of knowledge which has to be acquitted, as well as on [[socio-cognitive]] and environmental circumstances<ref> Interpretation based on the IPK model of the systemic [http://192.107.74.146/wwwerg26701/gad-dict.htm TOGA meta-theory], Adam Maria Gadomski, 1993</ref>.
   
  +
Learning ranges from simple forms of learning such as [[habituation]] and [[classical conditioning]] seen in many animal species, to more complex activities such as [[play (activity)|play]], seen only in relatively intelligent animals<ref>[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/1/junglegyms.cfm Jungle Gyms: The Evolution of Animal Play]</ref><ref>[http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/behavior.php What behavior can we expect of octopuses?]</ref> and humans. Therefore, in general, learning can be either a [[conscious]] or non-conscious process.
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'''Learning''' is the [[process]] of acquiring [[knowledge]], [[skill]]s, [[attitude (psychology)|attitude]]s, or [[value]]s, through [[study]], [[experience]], or [[teaching]], that causes a change of behavior that is persistent, measurable, and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new [[mental]] [[construct]] or revise a prior mental construct (conceptual knowledge such as attitudes or values). It is a process that depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in [[behavior]] potential. Behavior potential describes the possible behavior of an individual (not actual behavior) in a given situation in order to achieve a goal. But potential is not enough; if individual learning is not periodically reinforced, it becomes shallower and shallower, and eventually is lost in that individual.
 
   
  +
For example, in small children, non-conscious learning processes are as natural as [[breathing]]. In fact, there is evidence for behavioral learning [[prenatal]]ly, in which [[habituation]] has been observed as early as 32 weeks into [[gestation]], indicating that the [[central nervous system]] is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in [[Developmental Psychology|development]].<ref>Sandman, Wadhwa, Hetrick, Porto & Peeke. (1997). Human fetal heart rate dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation. Child Development, 68, 1031-1040.</ref>
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Short term changes in behavior potential, such as fatigue, do not constitute learning. Some long-term changes in behavior potential result from [[ageing|aging]] and [[human development|development]], rather than learning.
  
   
  +
From the social perspective, learning should be the [[goal]] of [[teaching]] and [[education]].
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Learning is sense making that enables manifestation of purpose.
  
   
  +
Conscious learning is a capacity requested by [[student]]s, therefore is usually [[goal-oriented]] and requires a [[motivation]].
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<!--
  
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Harnessing learning as [[process]] is becoming very important to large scale innovation management. An individual's personal purpose is key to that person applying learning to new behavior in their work or their life. As they are exposed to new information, their willingness to apply their newfound knowledge is key to creating sustained value. [[Organizational change]] results from behavior potential being realized. -->
  
   
  +
Learning has also been mathematically modeled using a differential equation related to an arbitrarily defined knowledge indicator with respect to time, and dependent on a number of interacting factors (constants and variables) such as initial knowledge, motivation, intelligence, knowledge anchorage or resistance, etc.<ref>Fadul, J. "[http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.1092 Mathematical Formulations of Learning: Based on Ten Learning Principles]" ''International Journal of Learning''. Volume 13 (2006) Issue 6. pp. 139-152.</ref><ref> deFigueiredo, R.J.P. [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=142118 Mathematical formulation of cognitive and learning processes in neural networks], 1990</ref> Thus, learning does not occur if there is no change in the amount of knowledge even for a long time, and learning is negative if the amount of knowledge is decreasing in time. Inspection of the solution to the differential equation also shows the sigmoid and logarithmic decay learning curves, as well as the knowledge carrying capacity for a given learner.
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[[Education]] is the conscious attempt to promote learning in others.
  
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The primary function of "teaching" is to create a safe, viable, productive learning environment. Management of the total learning environment to promote enhance and motivate learning is a [[paradigm shift]] from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning.
  
   
  ⚫
==Types of learning==
−
== Learning - Neuroscience ==
  
  +
===Simple non-associative learning===
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The learning process can be displayed as a graph. The stronger the stimulation for the brain, the deeper the impression that is left in the neuronal network. Therefore a repeated, very intensive experience perceived through all of the senses (audition, sight, smell) of an individual will remain longer and prevail over other experiences. The complex interactions of neurons that have formed a network in the brain determine the direction of flow of the micro-voltage electricity that flows through the brain when a person thinks. The characteristics of the neuronal network shaped by previous impressions is what we call the persons "character".
  
  ⚫
====Habituation====
⚫
See also [[Cognitive Science]]
  
  +
{{Main|Habituation}}
  +
In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of [[behavior]]al response probability with repetition of a [[stimulation|stimulus]]. It is another form of [[integration]]. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a stuffed [[owl]] (or similar [[predator]]) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan ''[[Stentor Coeruleus]]''.<ref name="wood1988"> Wood, D. C. (1988). Habituation in ''Stentor'' produced by mechanoreceptor channel modification. Journal of Neuroscience, 2254 (8).</ref>
   
  +
====Sensitization====
⚫
== Basic learning processes ==
  
  +
{{Main|Sensitization}}
  +
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a [[stimulation|stimulus]] (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
   
−
{{main|Basic learning processes}}
+
===Associative learning===
  ⚫
====Operant conditioning====
  ⚫
{{Main|Operant conditioning}}
  +
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. ''Operant conditioning'' is distinguished from [[Classical conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning]] in that operant conditioning deals with the [[Behavior modification|modification of voluntary behavior]].
  +
Discrimination learning is a major form of [[operant conditioning]]. One form of it is called [[Errorless learning]].
   
  +
====Classical conditioning====
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[[Image:Baby.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Person|People]] will instinctively [[smile]] back at [[baby|babies]] who [[gaze]] at them and smile.]]
  
  +
{{Main|Classical conditioning}}
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The most basic learning process is imitation, one's personal [[repetition]] of an [[observation|observed]] [[process]], such as a [[smile]]. Thus an imitation will take one's [[time]] (attention to the details), [[space]] (a location for learning), [[skill]]s (or practice), and other [[resource]]s (for example, a protected area). Through copying, most infants learn how to hunt (i.e., direct one's attention), feed and perform most basic [[task]]s necessary for [[survival]].
 
  +
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a particular response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a ''conditioned response''.
−
*[[Attention]]
  
⚫
*[[Habituation]]
  
⚫
*[[Classical conditioning]]
  
⚫
*[[Instrumental conditioning]]
  
⚫
*[[Vicarious learning]]
  
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*[[Communication]]
  
   
  +
===Imprinting===
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{{Sectstub}}
  
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{{Main|Imprinting (psychology)}}
  +
Imprinting is the term used in [[psychology]] and [[ethology]] to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
  +
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
   
  ⚫
===Observational learning===
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== Learning by example ==
  
  +
{{main|Observational learning}}
   
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The most common human learning process is imitation; one's personal [[repetition]] of an [[observation|observed]] behaviour, such as a [[dance]]. Humans can copy three types of information simultanesouly: the demonstrators goals, actions and environmental outcomes (results, see [[Emulation (observational learning)]]). Through copying these types of information, (most) infants will tune into their surrounding culture.
−
[[Example]] can be a motivation for learning. [[Imitation]] of a [[role model]] is a natural mechanism for [[infant]]s and [[child]]ren, when learning from [[experience]]. Child's [[play]] is another method for learning by the example of other children, who naturally gain satisfaction by playing the role of teacher or mentor to a less-experienced child.
  
   
  +
===Play===
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[[Image:Homemade-merry-go-round.jpg|thumb|right|Merry-go-round in a [[playground]]]]
  
  +
{{Main|Play (activity)}}
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The [[sandbox]] (sandpit) in a playground is an example of a location where children can learn by experience. It is instructive to watch smaller children on a [[merry-go-round]], for example, who naturally push it more slowly than the larger, older, more experienced ones. In order for a little one to get on the merry-go-round, they might simply grab a bar and drag their feet in the sand, while holding on. This slows down the rotation, which allows the little one to climb on, under the oversight of a supervisor, to ensure their physical safety.
  
  +
Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to [[mammal]]s and [[bird]]s. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as [[orca]]s playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to [[predator]]s and the risk of [[injury]] and possibly [[infection]]. It also consumes [[energy]], so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving [[physical fitness]].
   
  +
===Multimedia learning===
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Learning "[[Machine learning#Algorithm types|how to learn]]" is a [[skill]], which can be taught to others, by example.
  
  +
The learning where learner uses [[multimedia learning]] environments (Mayer, 2001). This type of learning relies on [[dual-coding theory]] (Paivio, 1971).
   
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===e-Learning and m-Learning===
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[[Electronic learning]] or e-learning is a general term used to refer to [[Internet]]-based [[computer network|networked]] computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is [[mobile learning]] (m-Learning), it uses different mobile telecommunication equipments, such as [[cellular phone]]s.
   
  ⚫
===Rote learning===
   
  ⚫
{{Main|Rote learning}}
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== Learning by teaching ==
  
  +
Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be [[recollection|recalled]] by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is ''learning by repetition'', based on the idea that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many situations.
   
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===Informal learning===
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'''Main article: [[Learning by teaching]]'''<br>
  
  +
{{main|Informal learning}}
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Learning by teaching, is a method of teaching which allows teachers to share the new lesson contents and let little groups prepare their part in order to teach this contents to the rest of the class.
  
   
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Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, [[Play (activity)|Play]], exploring.
   
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== Formal learning methods ==
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===Formal learning===
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{{main|Education}}
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[[Image:Codex Manesse Schulmeister von Esslingen.jpg|right|thumb|Traditional teacher-centred environments have a long history.]]
  
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[[Image:Laurentius de Voltolina 001.jpg|right|thumb|A depiction of the world's oldest university, the [[University of Bologna]], Italy]]
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Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system.
   
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Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.
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[[Schools]] use a variety of methods to help pupils learn.
  
   
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===Non-formal learning and combined approaches===
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=== Learning by worked examples ===
  
   
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The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below).
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Often there are worked examples in books that show exactly how the author solved, step by step, a particular problem, for example, in mathematics. Different books may help explain methods in different ways - some are easier to understand than others and supplement what the teacher taught. [[Homework]] can be a great help, or it can be a waste of time.
  
  +
In some schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can proof this offered valuable new insights, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, [[teaching]], etc.
   
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In order to learn a skill, such as solving a [[Rubik's cube]] quickly, several factors come into play at once:
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=== Learning which alternative methods exist ===
  
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* Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's cube
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* Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle memory" and therefore speed
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* Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts.
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* The Rubik's cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.
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* Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill.
   
  ⚫
==See also==
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Sometimes different [[method]]s can be applied to solve a particular problem. Often the student is not aware of alternatives until they are pointed out by the teacher; then the student should also be made aware of how to select the "best" method from among the available ones, and of which authors of [[textbook]]s are likely to be especially helpful.
  
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{{multicol}}
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* [[Animal cognition]]
  ⚫
* [[Cognitive processes]]
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* [[Concept formation]]
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* [[Connectionism]]
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* [[Constructivism]]
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* [[Delayed alternation]]
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* [[Developmental psychology]]
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* [[Feedback]]
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* [[Forgetting]]]
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* [[Intelligence]]
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* [[Information ladder]]
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{{multicol-break}}
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* [[Machine learning]]
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* [[Memory]]
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* [[Metacognition]]
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* [[Pedagogy]]
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* [[Reasoning]]
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* [[Retention]]
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* [[Sequence learning]]
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* [[Spontaneous alternation]]
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* [[Sleep and learning]]
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* [[Strategies]]
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* [[Study skills]]
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* [[Time on task]]
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{{multicol-end}}
   
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==References==
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=== Learning which shortcuts exist to solve specific problems ===
  
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{{reflist}}
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* {{cite book|
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author=Mayer, R. E.|
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year=2001|
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title= Multimedia learning|
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location=New York|
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publisher=Cambridge University Press|
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isbn=0-52178-749-1}}
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* Paivio, A (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
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* Holt, John (1983). How Children Learn. UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140225706
   
  ⚫
==External links==
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Sometimes [[shortcut]]s exist that can reduce by many hours the solution of practical problems. For example, [[Maxima and minima]] of functions can be obtained "the hard way" by a whole series of numerical calculations, while the use of calculus is often a shortcut.
  
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{{wikiquote}}
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<!-- Editors: Note that this is not the place for links to 'how to' sites that relate to study skills etc. -->
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* [http://www.problemistics.org/tools/subjects/education.learning.html Education & Learning] List of selected links
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* [http://www.pedagogy.ir Pedagogy Iran]
   
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{{Learningtheory}}
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== Other dimensions of learning ==
  
   
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Here are a few theories and subcategories of learning:
  
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*[[Cognition]]
  
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*[[Experiential education]]
  
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*[[Erudition]]
  
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*[[Formulating knowledge for learning]]
  
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*[[Inquiry education]]
  
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*[[Instructional technology]]
  
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*[[Motor learning]]
  
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*[[Language education]]
  
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*[[Lifelong education]]
 
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*[[Learning music by ear]]
  
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*[[Learning disability]]
  
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*[[Learning psychology]]
  
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*[[Learning styles]]
  
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*[[Learning theory (education)]]
  
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*[[Organizational learning]]
  
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*[[Observational learning]]
  
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*[[Reading (activity)|Reading]]
  
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== See also ==
  
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* [[Educational animation]]
  
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* [[Educational psychology]]
  
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* [[Debugging]]
  
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* [[Diagnosis]]
 
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* [[e-learning]]
  
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* [[Efficient learning method]]
  
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* [[Indoctrination]]
  
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* [[Lesson]]
  
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* [[Machine learning]]
  
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* [[Motor learning]]
  
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* [[Cortical plasticity]]
  
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* [[Superlearning]]
  
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* [[Scientific method]]
  
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* [[Skill]]
  
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== External links ==
  
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* [http://tip.psychology.org/ Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database]
  
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[[Category:Learning| ]]
  
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[[Category:Education]]
  
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[[Category:Psychology]]
  
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[[Category:Educational psychology]]
  
   
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Revision as of 12:04, 14 April 2016

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Cognitive Psychology: Attention · Decision making · Learning · Judgement · Memory · Motivation · Perception · Reasoning · Thinking  - Cognitive processes Cognition - Outline Index

In the fields of neuropsychology, personal development and education, learning is one of the most important mental function of humans, animals and artificial cognitive systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge supported by perceived information. It leads to the development of new capacities, skills, values, understanding, and preferences. Its goal is the increasing of individual and group experience. Learning functions can be performed by different brain learning processes, which depend on the mental capacities of learning subject, the type of knowledge which has to be acquitted, as well as on socio-cognitive and environmental circumstances[1].

Learning ranges from simple forms of learning such as habituation and classical conditioning seen in many animal species, to more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals[2][3] and humans. Therefore, in general, learning can be either a conscious or non-conscious process.

For example, in small children, non-conscious learning processes are as natural as breathing. In fact, there is evidence for behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.[4]

From the social perspective, learning should be the goal of teaching and education.

Conscious learning is a capacity requested by students, therefore is usually goal-oriented and requires a motivation.

Learning has also been mathematically modeled using a differential equation related to an arbitrarily defined knowledge indicator with respect to time, and dependent on a number of interacting factors (constants and variables) such as initial knowledge, motivation, intelligence, knowledge anchorage or resistance, etc.[5][6] Thus, learning does not occur if there is no change in the amount of knowledge even for a long time, and learning is negative if the amount of knowledge is decreasing in time. Inspection of the solution to the differential equation also shows the sigmoid and logarithmic decay learning curves, as well as the knowledge carrying capacity for a given learner.

Types of learning

Simple non-associative learning

Habituation

Main article: Habituation

In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus. It is another form of integration. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, including the large protozoan Stentor Coeruleus.[7]

Sensitization

Main article: Sensitization

Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.

Associative learning

Operant conditioning

Main article: Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary behavior. Discrimination learning is a major form of operant conditioning. One form of it is called Errorless learning.

Classical conditioning

Main article: Classical conditioning

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a particular response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response.

Imprinting

Main article: Imprinting (psychology)

Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.

Wiki letter w
 Please help improve this article by expanding this section.
See talk page for details. Please remove this message once the section has been expanded.


Observational learning

Main article: Observational learning

The most common human learning process is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed behaviour, such as a dance. Humans can copy three types of information simultanesouly: the demonstrators goals, actions and environmental outcomes (results, see Emulation (observational learning)). Through copying these types of information, (most) infants will tune into their surrounding culture.

Play

Main article: Play (activity)

Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.

Multimedia learning

The learning where learner uses multimedia learning environments (Mayer, 2001). This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1971).

e-Learning and m-Learning

Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to Internet-based networked computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-Learning), it uses different mobile telecommunication equipments, such as cellular phones.

Rote learning

Main article: Rote learning

Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the idea that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many situations.

Informal learning

Main article: Informal learning

Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, Play, exploring.

Formal learning

Main article: Education
Laurentius de Voltolina 001

A depiction of the world's oldest university, the University of Bologna, Italy

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system.

Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

Non-formal learning and combined approaches

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can proof this offered valuable new insights, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

  • Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's cube
  • Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle memory" and therefore speed
  • Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts.
  • The Rubik's cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.
  • Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill.

See also


References

  1. ↑ Interpretation based on the IPK model of the systemic TOGA meta-theory, Adam Maria Gadomski, 1993
  2. ↑ Jungle Gyms: The Evolution of Animal Play
  3. ↑ What behavior can we expect of octopuses?
  4. ↑ Sandman, Wadhwa, Hetrick, Porto & Peeke. (1997). Human fetal heart rate dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation. Child Development, 68, 1031-1040.
  5. ↑ Fadul, J. "Mathematical Formulations of Learning: Based on Ten Learning Principles" International Journal of Learning. Volume 13 (2006) Issue 6. pp. 139-152.
  6. ↑ deFigueiredo, R.J.P. Mathematical formulation of cognitive and learning processes in neural networks, 1990
  7. ↑ Wood, D. C. (1988). Habituation in Stentor produced by mechanoreceptor channel modification. Journal of Neuroscience, 2254 (8).
  • Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Paivio, A (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
  • Holt, John (1983). How Children Learn. UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140225706

External links

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