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Iconic memory

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Iconic memory is a type of short term visual memory (a sensory memory), named by George Sperling in 1960. Experiments performed by Sperling and colleagues provided evidence for a rapidly decaying sensory trace, lasting only approximately 250 ms after the offset of a display.[1]

Contents

[edit] Background

Although recollection of four-to-five alphanumeric characters can commonly be reported after a single brief exposure (e.g., James McKeen Cattell, 1886), observers have frequently reported the phenomenal impression of many more elements immediately after display presentation (e.g., Gill & Dallenbach, 1926).

These two observations can be reconciled if it is assumed that visual memory [1] consists of two parts: one, a rich, but rapidly decaying sensory trace of the entire stimuli display; and two, a short-term memory store of lower capacity, able to retain its contents over several seconds.

Provided the sensory trace decayed with sufficient speed, at the point of recall observers would only have the contents of the second, longer-lived, but lower capacity memory store available for report.

[edit] Sperling experiments

In a series of experiments, Sperling (1960) investigated and confirmed this bipartite model of memory.

In Sperling's (1960) experiments, observers were presented for a short period of time with displays composed of between 3 and 16 alphanumeric characters. Memory performance was compared under two conditions, referred to as whole report and partial report.

In the whole report condition observers were asked to recall as many elements from the display as possible. Observers were typically able to recollect four to five characters, irrespective of how many other characters were present within the display. This finding is consistent with previous studies of a similar kind (e.g., Cattell, 1886), and suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of four-to-five items.

In Sperling's (1960) partial report condition observers were required to identify a subset of the characters within the visual display. At various intervals after the removal of the visual display a tone was sounded. The frequency of the tone (e.g., high, medium, or low) indicated to observers which particular set of characters within the display they were to report (e.g., the top, middle or bottom row). In order to ensure that limits evident in the whole report task were not a factor for performance in the partial report condition, all rows were composed of only three or four characters (i.e., less than the limit associated with whole report). Performance in the partial report condition can be regarded as a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display. This type of sampling revealed that for short intervals following exposure observers have a much better memory than suggested by the whole report procedure. For instance, results using partial report suggest that observers retain about 12 characters from a 16-character array in memory immediately after presentation of the array (Averbach & Sperling, 1961; Sperling, 1960).

By varying the time between the offset of the display, and the sounding of the auditory cue, Sperling (1960) was able to probe for changes in accuracy of report over time. Using this technique, the initial memory for a stimulus display was found to decay rapidly after display offset; until approximately 1000 ms after stimulus offset the overall memory span estimated by the partial report approximated that of whole report. In a series of experiments using partial report, Averbach showed that replacing the auditory cue (as used by Sperling, 1960) with a visual cue produced an equivalent pattern of results (for a summary of this research, see Averbach & Sperling, 1961). Overall, experiments using partial report provided evidence for a rapidly decaying sensory trace, lasting for approximately 1000 ms after the offset of a display (Averbach & Sperling, 1961; Sperling, 1960). Sperling (1960) named this type of store iconic memory.

Iconic memory was discovered to be quite fragile: eye movements occurring between stimulus offset and the onset of the cue were found to be highly disruptive, suggesting that iconic memory might be organized in a retinotopic manner.[2] Further evidence of its fragility was demonstrated by the finding that iconic memory decayed much more rapidly if the stimulus display was immediately followed by a bright background rather than a dark background.[3]

[edit] Iconic memory in context

Interestingly, the majority of memory models up until the late 1960s considered iconic memory to be the only true visual trace (for representative ideas, see Sperling, 1963; 1967). The memory associated with whole report was not regarded as visual memory – perhaps not surprising given the use of alphanumeric characters as stimuli – but as a form of categorical knowledge, encoded perhaps as a form of auditory trace (Sperling, 1967). For instance, Sperling (1967) proposed that information available for whole report was maintained via subvocal rehearsal in auditory memory. Of course logically the information in iconic memory might also have been stored as a non-visual trace, but it appears for theoretical reasons this possibility was never considered.

Iconic memory was viewed as a short-term sensory buffer, allowing time for sensory information to be recoded in a more permanent, categorical manner (Sperling, 1963, 1967). It was the pioneering work of Phillips (1971) that changed this view, and introduced the concept of a purely visual, short-term memory store.

[edit] Neurophysiology

[edit] References

  1. ↑ Averbach & Sperling, 1961; Sperling, 1960
  2. ↑ Sperling, 1960
  3. ↑ Averbach & Sperling, 1961


[edit] Further reading

[edit] Key texts

[edit] Books

  • Averbach, E., & Sperling, G. (1961). Short term storage of information in vision. In C. Cherry (Ed.), Information Theory (pp. 196-211). London: Butterworth.

[edit] Papers

  • Acosta, E., & Crawford, H. J. (1985). Iconic memory and hypnotizability: Processing speed, skill, or strategy differences? : International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis Vol 33(3) Jul 1985, 236-245.
  • Balazsi, R., & Rusu, C. (2005). Methodological difficulties in assessing working memory: What do span tasks measure? : Cognitie Creier Comportament Vol 9(1) Mar 2005, 107-135.
  • Baron, R. J. (1985). Visual memories and mental images: International Journal of Man-Machine Studies Vol 23(3) Sep 1985, 275-311.
  • Baumeister, A. A., Runcie, D., & Gardepe, J. (1984). Processing of information in iconic memory: Differences between nonretarded and retarded subjects: Journal of Abnormal Psychology Vol 93(4) Nov 1984, 433-447.
  • Beck, A. R., & Fritz, H. (1998). Can people who have aphasia learn iconic codes? : AAC: Augmentative and Alternative Communication Vol 14(3) Sep 1998, 184-196.
  • Becker, M. W., Pashler, H., & Anstis, S. M. (2000). The role of iconic memory in change-detection tasks: Perception Vol 29(3) 2000, 273-286.
  • Black, I. L., & Barbee, J. G. (1985). Effect of a partial report visual cue on information available in tachistoscopic presentations of alphanumeric characters varying in number and type: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 61(3, Pt 1) Dec 1985, 815-820.
  • Brattico, E., Winkler, I., Naatanen, R., Paavilainen, P., & Tervaniemi, M. (2002). Simultaneous storage of two complex temporal sound patterns in auditory sensory memory: Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research Vol 13(14) Oct 2002, 1747-1751.
  • Britton, B. K. (1980). Cognitive Psychology Textbook Provides a Novel Integration: PsycCRITIQUES Vol 25 (1), Jan, 1980.
  • Burns, B. (1987). Is stimulus structure in the mind's eye? An examination of dimensional structure in iconic memory: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology Vol 39(3, Sect A) Aug 1987, 385-408.
  • Burns, B., & Hopkins, A. (1987). Integral and separable stimulus structure in iconic memory: A replication and extension of Burns (1987): Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 64(1) Feb 1987, 263-270.
  • Cattell, J. M. (1886). The inertia of the eye and brain. Brain, 8, 295-312.
  • Chlewinski, Z., & Grzywa, A. (1983). Iconic and symbolic representation of abstract concepts in paranoid schizophrenics: Role of selective attention and memory: Przeglad Psychologiczny Vol 26(4) 1983, 797-814.
  • Chow, S. L. (1986). Iconic memory, location information, and partial report: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 12(4) Nov 1986, 455-465.
  • Chow, S. L. (1991). Partial report: Iconic store or two buffers? : Journal of General Psychology Vol 118(2) Apr 1991, 147-169.
  • Cladellas, R., & Castello, A. (2006). Differences in the iconic and symbolic codification in a task of mental rotation: Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada Vol 59(4) Oct 2006, 493-508.
  • Cohene, L. S. (1984). Rejoinder to Holding and Orenstein: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 58(1) Feb 1984, 254.
  • Cohene, L. S. (1984). "Sensory storage of fragmentary displays": Refutation of a theory of iconic memory? : Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 58(1) Feb 1984, 241-242.
  • Cowan, N., Saults, J. S., & Nugent, L. D. (1997). The role of absolute and relative amounts of time in forgetting within immediate memory: The case of tone-pitch comparisons: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review Vol 4(3) Sep 1997, 393-397.
  • Coyne, A. C., Burger, M. C., Berry, J. M., & Botwinick, J. (1987). Adult age, information processing, and partial report performance: Journal of Genetic Psychology Vol 148(2) Jun 1987, 219-224.
  • di Lollo, V. (1985). E pluribus unum: Rursus? A comment on Loftus, Johnson, and Shimamura's "How much is an icon worth?" Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 11(3) Jun 1985, 379-383.
  • di Lollo, V., & Dixon, P. (1988). Two forms of persistence in visual information processing: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 14(4) Nov 1988, 671-681.
  • di Lollo, V., & Dixon, P. (1992). Is the icon's worth apples and oranges? Some fruitful thoughts on Loftus, Duncan, and Gehrig (1992): Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 18(2) May 1992, 550-555.
  • Dykes, J. (1974). Review of Iconic Communication: An Annotated Bibliography: PsycCRITIQUES Vol 19 (8), Aug, 1974.
  • Elliot, M. A., & Muller, H. J. (2000). Evidence for a 40-Hz oscillatory short-term visual memory revealed by human reaction-time measurements: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Vol 26(3) May 2000, 703-718.
  • Elliott, D. (1990). Intermittent visual pickup and goal directed movement: A review: Human Movement Science Vol 9(3-5) Sep 1990, 531-548.
  • Flaherty, M. (1994). Hemispheric asymmetry in familiar face recognition: Absence of laterality in iconic storage: Psychological Studies Vol 39(2-3) Jul-Nov 1994, 88-93.
  • Foley, R., & Mulhern, G. (1991). Capacity, duration, and position effects in visual memory following a successive field procedure: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 73(1) Aug 1991, 195-198.
  • Gallace, A., Tan, H. Z., Haggard, P., & Spence, C. (2008). Short term memory for tactile stimuli: Brain Research Vol 1190 Jan 2008, 132-142.
  • Gegenfurtner, K. R., & Sperling, G. (1993). Information transfer in iconic memory experiments: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 19(4) Aug 1993, 845-866.
  • George, N., Jemel, B., Fiori, N., & Renault, B. (2000). Holistic and part-based face representations: Evidence from the memory span of the "face superiority effect." Current Psychology Letters: Behaviour, Brain & Cognition No 1 2000, 89-106.
  • Giannoulis, K., & Wilding, J. (1992). A deficit of iconic memory in children with attentional problems assigned to nurture groups: British Journal of Developmental Psychology Vol 10(2) Jun 1992, 199-201.
  • Gill, N. F., & Dallenbach, K. M. (1926). A preliminary study of the range of attention.

American Journal of Psychology, 37, 247-256.

  • Gilmore, G. C., Allan, T. M., & Royer, F. L. (1986). Iconic memory and aging: Journal of Gerontology Vol 41(2) Mar 1986, 183-190.
  • Greene, E. (2007). Information persistence in the integration of partial cues for object recognition: Perception & Psychophysics Vol 69(5) Jul 2007, 772-784.
  • Groner, M. T., Bischof, W. F., & di Lollo, V. (1988). A model of visible persistence and temporal integration: Spatial Vision Vol 3(4) 1988, 293-304.
  • Guopeng, C., Xiaoli, W., Yunqiu, F., Lass, U., Yan, S., Becker, D., et al. (2004). A Study of the Sperling Paradigm: The Allocation of Attention When Stimulus Are Presented in Different Mode: Psychological Science (China) Vol 27(3) May 2004, 563-566.
  • Haber, R. N. (1985). An icon can have no worth in the real world: Comments on Loftus, Johnson, and Shimamura's "How much is an icon worth?" Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 11(3) Jun 1985, 374-378.
  • Hankala, A. (1996). The integrating function of iconic memory: Psychologia Wychowawcza Vol 39(1) Jan-Feb 1996, 1-12.
  • Holding, D. H., & Orenstein, H. B. (1984). Reply to Cohene: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 58(1) Feb 1984, 246.
  • Hong, S. H., Khang, B.-g., & Chung, C. S. (1987). Early processing of identity and category information: Korean Journal of Psychology Vol 6(2) 1987, 179-189.
  • Hornstein, H. A., & Mosley, J. L. (1987). Iconic memory deficit of mildly mentally retarded individuals: American Journal of Mental Deficiency Vol 91(4) Jan 1987, 415-421.
  • Irwin, D. E., & Brown, J. S. (1987). Tests of a model of informational persistence: Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie Vol 41(3) Sep 1987, 317-338.
  • Iwasaki, S. (1986). Iconic memory: Japanese Psychological Review Vol 29(2) 1986, 123-149.
  • Jaaskelainen, I. P., Hautamaki, M., Naatanen, R., & Ilmoniemi, R. J. (1999). Temporal span of human echoic memory and mismatch negativity: Revisited: Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research Vol 10(6) Apr 1999, 1305-1308.
  • Jiang, Y., Olson, I. R., & Chun, M. M. (2000). Organization of visual short-term memory: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Vol 26(3) May 2000, 683-702.
  • Johnson, K. E., Younger, B. A., & Cuellar, R. E. (2005). Toddlers' Understanding of Iconic Models: Cross-Task Comparison of Selection and Preferential Looking Responses: Infancy Vol 8(2) 2005, 189-200.
  • Kampf, U. (1986). Processes of disintegration and formation of visual structures in sensoric memory: Our experience from a stroboscopic study into early processing: Studia Psychologica Vol 28(3-4) 1986, 321-333.
  • Keysers, C., Xiao, D. K., Foldiak, P., & Perrett, D. I. (2005). Out of sight but not out of mind: The neurophysiology of iconic memory in the superior temporal sulcus: Cognitive Neuropsychology Vol 22(3-4) May-Jun 2005, 316-332.
  • Kikuchi, T. (1987). Temporal characteristics of visual memory: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 13(3) Aug 1987, 464-477.
  • Koelsch, S., Schroger, E., & Tervaniemi, M. (1999). Superior pre-attentive auditory processing in musicians: Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research Vol 10(6) Apr 1999, 1309-1313.
  • Krekelberg, B. (2001). The persistence of position: Vision Research Vol 41(4) Feb 2001, 529-539.
  • Lawrence, D. M., & Breslow, N. (1985). Tick-tack-toe in iconic memory: A demonstration of informational persistence: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 61(2) Oct 1985, 647-650.
  • Lemay, M., & Proteau, L. (2002). Effects of target presentation time, recall delay, and aging on accuracy of manual pointing to remembered targets: Journal of Motor Behavior Vol 34(1) Mar 2002, 11-23.
  • Lieberth, A. K., & Gamble, M. B. (1991). The role of iconicity in sign language learning by hearing adults: Journal of Communication Disorders Vol 24(2) Apr 1991, 89-99.
  • Loftus, G. R. (1985). On worthwhile icons: Reply to Di Lollo and Haber: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 11(3) Jun 1985, 384-388.
  • Loftus, G. R., & Busey, T. A. (1992). Multidimensional models and iconic decay: Reply to di Lollo and Dixon: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 18(2) May 1992, 556-561.
  • Loftus, G. R., Duncan, J., & Gehrig, P. (1992). On the time course of perceptual information that results from a brief visual presentation: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 18(2) May 1992, 530-549.
  • Loftus, G. R., Johnson, C. A., & Shimamura, A. P. (1985). How much is an icon worth? : Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 11(1) Feb 1985, 1-13.
  • Long, G. M. (1985). The varieties of visual persistence: Comments on Yeomans and Irwin: Perception & Psychophysics Vol 38(4) Oct 1985, 381-385.
  • Long, G. M., & Homolka, J. L. (1992). Effects of uniform field flicker on type 1 and type 2 visible persistence: Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society Vol 30(1) Jan 1992, 51-54.
  • Long, G. M., & O'Saben, C. L. (1989). The changing face of visual persistence: American Journal of Psychology Vol 102(2) Sum 1989, 197-210.
  • Lu, Z.-L., Neuse, J., Madigan, S., & Dosher, B. A. (2005). Fast decay of iconic memory in observers with mild cognitive impairments: PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Vol 102(5) Feb 2005, 1797-1802.
  • Marquez, S., Zubiaur, M., Serrano, I., & Delgado, J. (1989). Hemispheric asymmetry and visual perception: Absence of laterality effects in iconic storage: Medical Science Research Vol 17(24) Dec 1989, 1019-1020.
  • Martens, U., Schweinberger, S. R., Kiefer, M., & Burton, A. M. (2006). Masked and unmasked electrophysiological repetition effects of famous faces: Brain Research Vol 1109(1) Sep 2006, 146-157.
  • McClure, J. T., Browning, T., Vantrease, C., Bittle, S., & Barker, M. (1997). The iconic memory skills of brain injury survivors before and after iconic memory skills training: Journal of Cognitive Rehabilitation Vol 15(3) May-Jun 1997, 20-23.
  • Mewhort, D. J., Butler, B. E., Feldman-Stewart, D., & Tramer, S. (1988). "Iconic memory," location information, and the bar-probe task: A reply to Chow (1986): Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Vol 14(4) Nov 1988, 729-737.
  • Mewhort, D. J., & Leppmann, K. P. (1985). Information persistence: Testing spatial and identity information with a voice probe: Psychological Research Vol 47(1) Apr 1985, 51-58.
  • Orenstein, H. B., & Holding, D. H. (1987). Attentional factors in iconic memory and visible persistence: The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology Vol 39(1-A) Feb 1987, 149-166.
  • Orlansky, M. D., & Bonvillian, J. D. (1985). Iconicity and sign language: A reply to Lloyd, Loeding, and Doherty (1985): Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders Vol 50(4) Nov 1985, 407-408.
  • Parente, R., Anderson-Parente, J. K., & Shaw, B. (1989). Retraining the mind's eye: Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation Vol 4(2) Jun 1989, 53-62.
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  • Perez Abalo, M. C., Valdes Sosa, M., & Fernandez Dorta, L. (1983). Visual masking in a comparison task with memory: Revista del Hospital Psiquiatrico de La Habana Vol 24(2) Apr-Jun 1983, 223-230.
  • Poggi, I. (2008). Iconicity in different types of gestures: Gesture Vol 8(1) 2008, 45-61.
  • Priout, P., Guedon, O., Proteau, L., & Gauthier, G. M. (2002). Pointing to a memorized position in a shifting visual context: Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie experimentale Vol 56(4) Dec 2002, 253-262.
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  • Ruff, C. C., Kristjansson, A., & Driver, J. (2007). Readout from iconic memory and selective spatial attention involve similar neural processes: Psychological Science Vol 18(10) Oct 2007, 901-909.
  • Ruiz-Vargas, J. M. (1985). Iconic memory and perception: A defense of the iconic storage concept in visual information processing: Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada Vol 40(4) 1985, 631-646.
  • Russo, T. (2004). Iconicity and Productivity in Sign Language Discourse: An Analysis of Three LIS Discourse Registers: Sign Language Studies Vol 4(2) Win 2004, I64-I97.
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[edit] Additional material

[edit] Books

  • Loftus, G. R., & Hogden, J. (1988). Extraction of information from complex visual stimuli: Memory performance and phenomenological appearance. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • Massaro, D. W., & Loftus, G. R. (1996). Sensory and perceptual storage: Data and theory. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

[edit] Papers

[edit] Dissertations

  • Gegenfurtner, K. R. (1991). Iconic memory, color discrimination and contrast detection: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Goossens, C. A. (1984). The relative iconicity and learnability of verb referents differentially represented by manual signs, Blissymbols, and Rebus symbols: An investigation with moderately retarded individuals: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Hankey, P. W., Jr. (1996). The development and evaluation of menu-option names and menu structures. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
  • Kiphart, M. J. (1985). Voluntary control and anticipatory cue effects for briefly presented visual stimuli: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Liu, S.-H. (2008). Two studies of human information processing: Visual very short-term memory and visual object attention. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
  • Mizuko, M. I. (1986). Iconicity and initial learning of three symbol systems in normal three year old children: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Sandin, M. D. (1996). The costs and benefits of current iconic representations. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
  • Stephens, R. L. (1989). The relationship between cognitive ability and the iconic processing of spatial and identity information: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Wittig, D. L. (1986). Effect of two metacognitive intervention strategies on the Listening Capacity Measure of the Informal Reading Inventory on the performance of fourth grade students of low and high auditory memory achievement levels: Dissertation Abstracts International.
  • Zerlin, S. A. (1994). An investigation into cross-saccadic memory. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.


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CBT | EMDR | Psychotherapy | Recovered memory therapy |Reminiscence therapy | Memory clinic | Memory training | Rewind technique |
Prominant workers in memory|-
Baddeley | Broadbent |Ebbinghaus  | Kandel |McGaugh | Schacter  | Treisman | Tulving  |
Philosophy and historical views of memory
Aristotle | [[]] |[[]] |[[]] |[[]] | [[]] | [[]] | [[]] |
Miscellaneous
Journals | Learning, Memory, and Cognition |Journal of Memory and Language |Memory |Memory and Cognition | [[]] | [[]] | [[]] |
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