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{{PhilPsy}}
  
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{{PsyPerspective}}
   
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'''''Humanism''''' is a broad category of active [[ethics|ethical philosophies]] that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on our ability to determine what is right using the qualities innate to humanity, particularly [[rationalism|rationality]]. Humanism is a component of a variety of more specific [[philosophy|philosophical]] systems.
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'''Humanism''' is a broad category of [[ethics|ethical philosophies]] that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly [[rationalism|rationality]].<ref> {{cite book
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|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary
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|publisher=Oxford University Press
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|date=2007
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|quote=humanism ''n.'' 1 a rationalistic system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. 2 a Renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholastic-ism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought.
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|publicationyear = 2007}}This article handles sense 1. See history section and main article [[Renaissance Humanism]] for sense 2.</ref><ref>
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{{cite book
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|title=Collins Concise Dictionary
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|publisher=HarperCollins
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|date=1999
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|quote=The rejection of religion in favour of a belief in the advancement of humanity by its own efforts. |publicationyear = 1990}}.</ref> It is a component of a variety of more specific [[philosophy|philosophical]] systems and has been incorporated into several religious schools of thought. Humanism can be considered as a process by which truth and morality is sought through human investigation. In focusing on the capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on [[faith|belief without reason]], the [[supernatural]], or [[religious text|texts]] of allegedly divine origin. Humanists endorse [[moral universalism|universal morality]] based on the commonality of the [[human condition]], suggesting that solutions to human social and cultural problems cannot be [[Parochialism|parochial]].<ref>
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{{cite web
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|title=Definitions of humanism (subsection)
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|publisher=Institute for Humanist Studies
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|url=http://humaniststudies.org/humphil.html
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|accessmonthday = [[16 Jan]]
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|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
   
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==Aspects==
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Humanism entails a commitment to the search for truth and morality through human means in support of human interests. In focusing on our capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on faith, the supernatural, sacred texts, or religious creeds. Humanists endorse a recognition of a [[Moral_universalism|universal morality]] based on the commonality of [[human nature]], suggesting that the long-term solutions to our problems cannot be parochial.
  
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=== Religion ===
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Humanism rejects deference to supernatural beliefs in resolving human affairs but not necessarily the beliefs themselves; indeed some strains of Humanism are compatible with some religions. It is generally compatible with [[atheism]] and [[agnosticism]] but doesn't require either of these. The word "[[ignosticism|ignostic]]" (American) or "indifferentist" (British, including OED) are sometimes applied to Humanism, on the grounds that Humanism is an ethical process, not a dogma about the existence or otherwise of gods; Humanists simply have no need to be concerned with such questions. Agnosticism or atheism on their own do not necessarily entail Humanism; many different and sometimes incompatible philosophies happen to be atheistic in nature. There is no one [[ideology]] or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere, and not all are humanistic.<ref>
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{{cite book
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|last=Baggini
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|first=Julian
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|authorlink=Julian Baggini
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|title=Atheism: A Very Short Introduction
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|pages=3&ndash;4
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|quote=The atheist's rejection of belief in God is usually accompanied by a broader rejection of any [[supernatural]] or [[transcendence (religion)|transcendental]] reality. For example, an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal [[soul]]s, [[afterlife|life after death]], [[ghost]]s, or supernatural powers. Although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist... the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental.
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|publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press
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|year=2003
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|isbn=0-19-280424-3}}</ref><ref>
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{{cite book
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|last=Winston
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|first=Robert (Ed.)
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|title=Human
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|quote=Neither atheism nor agnosticism is a full belief system, because they have no fundamental philosophy or lifestyle requirements. These forms of thought are simply the absence of belief in, or denial of, the existence of deities.
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|publisher=New York: DK Publishing, Inc
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|year=2004
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|isbn=0-7566-1901-7
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|page=299}}</ref>
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As Humanism encompasses intellectual currents running through a wide variety of philosophical and religious thought, several strains of Humanism allow it to fulfill, supplement or supplant the role of religions, and in particular, to be embraced as a complete [[life stance]]. For more on this, see [[Humanism (life stance)]]. In a number of countries, for the purpose of laws that give rights to "religions", the secular life stance has become legally recognized as equivalent to a "religion" for this purpose.<ref>Note: The topic of this article has a small initial character as Wikipedia guidelines prescribe for the name of a philosophy. The ''life stance'' named Humanism is capitalized as prescribed for the name of a religion. The International Humanist and Ethical Union, coordinating organized Humanist bodies worldwide, has recommended use of the capital H by its affiliates</ref> In the United States, the Supreme Court recognized that Humanism is equivalent to a religion in the limited sense of authorizing Humanists to conduct ceremonies commonly carried out by officers of religious bodies. The relevant passage is in a footnote to [[Torcaso v. Watkins]] (1961). It is often alleged by fundamentalist critics of Humanism that the Supreme Court "declared Humanism to be a religion," however the Court's statement, a mere footnote at most, clearly does not in fact do so; it simply asserts an equivalency of Humanists' right to act in ways usual to a religion, such as ceremonial recognition of life's landmarks.
   
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[[Renaissance humanism]], and its emphasis on returning to the sources, contributed to the Protestant reformation by helping to gain what Protestants believe was a more accurate translation of Biblical texts.
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Two widely accepted doctrines of [[humanism]] are set forth in the ''[[Humanist Manifesto]]'' [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php] and ''[[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]'' [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration].
  
   
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=== Knowledge ===
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In 2002 the International Humanist and Ethical Union ([[IHEU]]) General Assembly unanimously adopted the [http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration Amsterdam Declaration] which represents the official defining statement of World Humanism. The [[Happy Human]] is the official symbol of IHEU as well as being regarded the official symbol of Humanism.
  
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According to Humanism, it is up to humans to find the truth, as opposed to seeking it through [[revelation]], [[mysticism]], [[tradition]], or anything else that is incompatible with the application of logic to the observable evidence. In demanding that humans avoid blindly accepting unsupported beliefs, it supports [[scientific skepticism]] and the [[scientific method]], rejecting [[authoritarianism]] and [[Philosophical skepticism|extreme skepticism]], and rendering [[faith]] an unacceptable basis for action. Likewise, Humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on the best understanding of one's individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental truth or an arbitrarily local source.<ref>
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{{cite book
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|last=Lamont
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|first=Corliss
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|authorlink=Corliss Lamont
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|title=The Philosophy of Humanism, Eighth Edition
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|pages=252–253
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|quote=Conscience, the sense of right and wrong and the insistent call of one's better, more idealistic, more social-minded self, is a social product. Feelings of right and wrong that at first have their locus within the family gradually develop into a pattern for the tribe or city, then spread to the larger unit of the nation, and finally from the nation to humanity as a whole. Humanism sees no need for resorting to supernatural explanations or sanctions at any point in the ethical process.
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|publisher=Humanist Press: Amherst, New York
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|year=1997
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|isbn=0-931779-07-3}}</ref>
   
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==Aspects==
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=== Optimism ===
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Humanism features an optimistic attitude about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that all people can live up to the Humanist ideals without help. If anything, there is the recognition that living up to one's potential is hard work and requires the assistance of others. The ultimate goal is [[eudaimonia|human flourishing]]; making life better for all humans, and as the most conscious species, also promoting concern for the welfare of other sentient beings. The focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world a better place for those who come after.
   
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===Religion===
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== History ==
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Contemporary humanism can be traced back through the [[Renaissance]] and back to the [[Islamic Golden Age]] to its ancient Greek roots. Humanism can also be traced back to the time of [[Gautama Buddha]] (563–483 [[BCE]]) and [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE) and the [[Warring States Period]], though the term ''humanism'' is more widely associated with Western philosophers. {{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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While humanism in some ways fulfills or supplements the role of religions in people's lives, and therefore qualifies as a stance on religion, it is not a religion in itself. It is entirely compatible with [[Naturalism_(philosophy)|naturalism]] (and therefore [[atheism]]), but doesn't strictly require either of these, and is in fact compatible with some types of religion.
  
   
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<!-- This would be a great place for a historically-minded reader to add a detailed timeline. Any volunteers? -->
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Though the dominant forms of humanism are atheistic (and express a disbelief in the supernatural), not all forms of humanism are. However, humanism denies the importance of the supernatural in human affairs, regardless of whether or not it exists. In this way, humanism does not necessarily rule out some form of [[theism]] or [[deism]], and there are many humanists who consider themselves religious, some of whom are members of (typically, [[Liberal_Christianity#Liberal_theology|liberal]]) religious organizations. What humanism clearly rejects is blind deference to supernatural beliefs in resolving human affairs, not necessarily the beliefs themselves.
  
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The term ''humanism'' was coined in 1808, based on the 15th century Italian term ''umanista'', which was used to designate a teacher or student of classic literature. The evolution of the meaning of the word ''humanism'' is fully explored in [[Nicolas Walter]]'s ''Humanism{{ndash}} What's in the Word''.<ref>[[Nicolas Walter|Walter, Nicolas]], 1997 ''Humanism{{ndash}} What's in the Word'', [[Rationalist Press Association]], London, ISBN 0-301-97001-7.</ref>
   
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===Greek humanism===
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For that matter, atheism on its own doesn't necessarily entail humanism. Indeed, many different and incompatible philosophies are atheistic in nature.
  
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{{main|Greek philosophy}}
   
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Sixth century BCE pantheists [[Thales of Miletus]] and [[Xenophanes of Colophon]] prepared the way for later Greek humanist thought. Thales is credited with creating the maxim "Know thyself", and Xenophanes refused to recognize the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. Later [[Anaxagoras]], often described as the "first [[freethinker]]", contributed to the development of science as a method of understanding the universe. These Ionian Greeks were the first thinkers to recognize that nature is available to be studied separately from any alleged supernatural realm. [[Pericles]], a pupil of Anaxagoras, influenced the development of democracy, freedom of thought, and the exposure of superstitions. Although little of their work survives, [[Protagoras]] and [[Democritus]] both espoused agnosticism and a spiritual morality not based on the supernatural. The historian [[Thucydides]] is noted for his scientific and rational approach to history.<ref>{{cite book
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===Knowledge===
  
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|last=Potter
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According to humanism, it is up to us to find the truth, not wait for it to be handed to us through [[revelation]], [[mysticism]], [[tradition]], or anything else that is incompatible with the application of logic to the evidence. In demanding that we avoid blindly accepting unsupported beliefs, it supports [[scientific skepticism]] and the [[scientific method]], rejecting [[authoritarianism]] and [[Philosophical_skepticism|extreme skepticism]], and rendering [[faith]] an unacceptable basis for action. Likewise, humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on our best understanding of our individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental or arbitrarily local source.
  
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|first=Charles
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|authorlink=Charles Francis Potter
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|title=Humanism A new Religion
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|pages=64–69
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|publisher=Simon and Schuster
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|date=1930}}
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</ref>
   
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===Speciesism===
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=== Islamic humanism ===
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{{main|Islamic ethics#Humanism|l1=Islamic ethics: Humanism}}
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Some have interpreted humanism to be a form of [[speciesism]], mostly because of the word itself, but this doesn't appear to be the case. Humanism does exalt human traits, but doesn't necessarily insist that no other species could or do have the same, or that other species have no rights just because they are not human. For these reasons, humanism appears to be neutral with regard to issues of [[animal rights]].
  
   
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Many [[Early Islamic philosophy|medieval Muslim thinkers]] pursued [[humanistic]], [[Rationalism|rational]] and scientific [[discourse]]s in their search for [[knowledge]], meaning and [[values]]. A wide range of Islamic writings on love [[poetry]], [[history]] and [[philosophical theology]] show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of [[individualism]], occasional [[secularism]], [[skepticism]] and [[liberalism]].<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0195135806.</ref> Certain aspects of [[Renaissance humanism]] has its roots in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]], including the "art of ''[[Dictation (exercise)|dictation]]'', called in [[Latin]], ''[[ars dictaminis]]''," and "the humanist attitude toward [[classical language]]", in this case [[classical Arabic]].<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April-June 1989|pages=175–182|doi=10.2307/604423}}</ref>
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===Optimism===
  
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Humanism features an optimistic attitude about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that each and every person is capable of living up to the humanist ideals of rationality and morality. If anything, there is the recognition that living up to our potential is hard work and requires the help of others. The ultimate goal is [[eudemonia|human flourishing]]; making life better for all of us. Even among humanists who do believe in some sort of an afterlife, the focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world better for those who come after us, not on suffering through life to be rewarded afterwards.
  
   
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== History ==
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=== Renaissance humanism ===
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{{main|Renaissance humanism}}
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Contemporary humanism can be traced back through the [[Renaissance]] to its ancient Greek roots.
  
   
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Renaissance humanism was a movement that affected the cultural, political, social, and literary landscape of [[Europe]]. Beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, Renaissance humanism revived the study of Latin and Greek, with the resultant revival of the study of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.(see Burckhard ''The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy'') The revival was based on interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation on the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and meekness. Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and an essential element in the path towards God. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}
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<!-- This would be a great place for a historically-minded reader to add a detailed timeline. Any volunteers? -->
  
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Civic humanism, "civic" which is rooted from the latin word "civis" meaning citizen.
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The evolution of the meaning of the word 'humanism' is fully explored in [[Nicolas Walter|Nicolas Walter]] ''Humanism - What's in the Word''. {{fn|1}}
  
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Humanism's divergence from orthodox Christianity can be identified with the condemnation of [[Pelagianism]] by Jerome and Augustine. Like the Humanists, [[Pelagius]] perceived humans as possessing inherent capacity for developing the qualities that the church perceived as necessitating the gift of grace from God. Pelagius rejected the doctrine of original sin. The Humanists likewise recognize humans as born not with a burden of inherited sin due to their ancestry but with potential for both good and evil which will develop in this life as their characters are formed. The Humanists therefore reject [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] [[predestination]], and understandably therefore arouse the hostility of [[Protestant]] [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalists]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
   
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Renaissance humanists believed that the [[liberal arts]] (music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of wealth. They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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=== Renaissance ===
  
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{{main_article|[[Renaissance humanism]]}}
  
   
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Noteworthy humanist scholars from this period include the Dutch theologian [[Desiderius Erasmus|Erasmus]], the English author (and [[Roman Catholic]] [[saint]]) [[Thomas More]], the French writer [[François Rabelais]], the Italian poet [[Francesco Petrarch]] and the Italian scholar [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]].{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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Renaissance humanism was a broad movement that affected the social, cultural, literary and political landscapes of [[Europe]]. Beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, renaissance humanism revived the study of the Latin and Greek languages; and caused the resultant revival of the studies of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.
  
   
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=== Modern era ===
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The "revival", or "re-birth" was based upon interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation upon the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and passivity, or "meekness". Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and "an essential element in the path towards God".
 
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One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organizations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in 1853 in London. This early group was democratically organized, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
   
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In February 1877, the word "Humanism" was publicly used, apparently for the first time in America, to apply to Felix Adler, pejoratively. Adler, however, did not embrace the term, and instead coined the name "Ethical Culture" for his new movement{{ndash}} a movement which still exists in the now Humanist-affiliated [http://www.nysec.org New York Society for Ethical Culture].{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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The crisis of Renaissance humanism came with the trial of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]; which forced the choice between basing the authority of one's beliefs on one's observations, or upon religious teaching. The trial made the contradictions between humanism and traditional religion visibly apparent to all, and humanism was branded a "dangerous doctrine".
  
   
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Active in the early 1920s, [[F.C.S. Schiller]] considered his work to be tied to the Humanist movement. Schiller himself was influenced by the [[pragmatism]] of [[William James]]. In 1929 [[Charles Francis Potter]] founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included [[Julian Huxley]], [[John Dewey]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Thomas Mann]]. Potter was a minister from the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published ''[[Humanism: A New Religion]]''. Throughout the 1930s Potter was a well-known advocate of women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.<ref>{{cite web |last=Stringer-Hye |first=Richard |title=Charles Francis Potter |work=Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography |publisher=Unitarian Universalist Historical Society |url=http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/charlesfrancispotter.html |accessdate=2008-05-01}}</ref>
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Renaissance humanists believed that the liberal arts (music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of wealth. They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.
  
   
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[[Raymond B. Bragg]], the associate editor of ''The New Humanist'', sought to consolidate the input of L. M. Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference.
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== Modern humanist philosophies ==
  
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There are many people who consider themselves humanists, and much variety in the exact type of humanism they believe in. There is some disagreement over terminology and definitions, with some people using narrower or broader interpretations. Not all people who call themselves humanists hold beliefs that are genuinely humanistic, and not all people who do hold humanistic beliefs apply the label of humanism to themselves.
  
   
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Bragg asked [[Roy Wood Sellars]] to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the ''[[Humanist Manifesto]]'' in 1933. The Manifesto and Potter's book became the cornerstones of modern humanism. Both of these sources envision humanism as a religion.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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All of this aside, humanism can be divided into secular and religious types.
  
   
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In 1941 the [[American Humanist Association]] was organized. Noted members of The AHA included [[Isaac Asimov]], who was the president from 1985 until his death in 1992, and writer [[Kurt Vonnegut]], who followed as honorary president until his death in 2007. [[Robert Buckman]] was the head of the association in Canada, and is now an honorary president.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
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===Secular humanism===
  
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[[Secular humanism]] is the branch of humanism that rejects theistic religious belief and, therefore, the existence of a supernatural. It is often associated with scientists and academics, although it is not at all limited to these groups. Secular humanists generally believe that following humanist principles naturally leads to [[secularism]], on the basis that religious views cannot be supported rationally. There are secular humanistic organizations, though these could not be accurately described as churches.
  
   
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After World War II, three prominent humanists became the first directors of major divisions of the [[United Nations]]: [[Julian Huxley]] of [[UNESCO]], [[Brock Chisholm]] of the [[World Health Organization]], and [[John Boyd-Orr]] of the [[Food and Agricultural Organization]].<ref>[http://www.americanhumanist.org/publications/morain/chapter-8.html American Humanist Association]</ref>
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More often than not, secular humanism is what people are referring to when they speak of humanism in general, making it something of a default. Some secular humanists take this even further by denying that religious humanists qualify as genuine humanists. Others feel that the ethical side of humanism transcends the issue of religion, because being a good person is more important than supernatural beliefs.
  
   
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=== Humanism (life stance) ===
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Some non-secular people, particularly Christian [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalists]], use the term ''humanist'' to refer to all atheists, a usage whose accuracy is disputed.
  
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{{main|Humanism (life stance)}}
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Humanism (capital 'H', no adjective such as "secular")<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/articles/DoerrND02.htm |title=Humanism Unmodified |accessdate=2008-07-05 |author=Doerr, Edd |date=November/December 2002 |work= |publisher=The Humanist}}</ref> is a comprehensive [[life stance]] that upholds human [[reason]], [[ethics]], and [[justice]], and rejects [[supernaturalism]], [[pseudoscience]], and [[superstition]].
   
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The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) is the world union of more than one hundred Humanist, rationalist, secular, ethical culture, and freethought organizations in more than 40 countries. The Happy Human is the official symbol of the IHEU as well as being regarded as a universally recognised symbol for those that call themselves Humanists (as opposed to "humanists"). In 2002 the IHEU General Assembly unanimously adopted the [[Amsterdam Declaration 2002]] which represents the official defining statement of World Humanism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration |title=Amsterdam Declaration 2002 |accessdate=2008-07-05 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=International Humanist and Ethical Union }}</ref>
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===Religious humanism===
  
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[[Religious humanism]] is the branch of humanism that embraces some form of theism, deism, or supernaturalism, or considers itself religious (based on a functional definition of religion), without necessarily being allied with organized religion, as such. It is often associated with artists, liberal Christians, and scholars in the liberal arts. Other types of people that may be considered religious humanists are those who, despite believing in a religion, don't consider it necessary to derive all their moral values from it. Some feel that, because their religious beliefs are moral, and therefore humane, they are humanists. In particular, it is not uncommon for religious humanitarians to be referred to as humanists, although the accuracy of this usage is disputed.
  
   
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All member organisations of the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] are required by IHEU bylaw 5.1<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iheu.org/bylaws |title=IHEU's Bylaws |accessdate=2008-07-05 |publisher=International Humanist and Ethical Union}}</ref> to accept the IHEU Minimum Statement on Humanism:
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A number of religious humanists feel that secular humanism is too coldly logical and rejects the full emotional experience that makes us human. From this comes the notion that secular humanism is inadequate in fulfilling the general human need for a philosophy of life. Disagreements over things of this nature have resulted in some amount of friction between secular and religious humanists, despite their commonalities.
  
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<blockquote>
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Humanism is a [[democratic]] and [[ethical]] life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more [[humane]] society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not [[theism|theistic]], and it does not accept [[supernatural]] views of reality.</blockquote>
   
 
== Other forms of humanism ==
  
== Other forms of humanism ==
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Humanism is also sometimes used to describe "humanities" scholars, (particularly scholars of the Greco-Roman classics). As mentioned above, it is sometimes used to mean humanitarianism. There is also a school of [[humanistic psychology]], and an educational method.
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Humanism is also sometimes used to describe "humanities" scholars, (particularly scholars of the Greco-Roman classics). As mentioned above, it is sometimes used to mean humanitarianism. There is also a school of [[humanistic psychology]], and an educational method.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
   
 
=== Educational humanism ===
  
=== Educational humanism ===
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Humanism, as a current in [[education]], began to dominate school systems in the 17th century. It held that the studies that develop our intellect are those that make us "most truly human". The practical basis for this was [[faculty psychology]], or the belief in distinct intellectual faculties, such as the analytical, the mathematical, the linguistic, etc. Strengthening one faculty was believed to benefit other faculties as well (transfer of training). A key player in the late 19th-century educational humanism was U.S. Commissioner of Education W.T. Harris, whose "Five Windows of the Soul" ([[mathematics]], [[geography]], [[history]], [[grammar]], and [[literature]]/[[art]]) were believed especially appropriate for "development of the faculties". Educational humanists believe that "the best studies, for the best kids" are "the best studies" for all kids. While humanism as an educational current was largely discredited by the innovations of the early 20th century, it still holds out, in some elite preparatory schools and some high school disciplines (especially, of course, in [[literature]]).
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Humanism, as a current in [[education]], began to dominate U.S. school systems in the 17th century. It held that the studies that develop human intellect are those that make humans "most truly human". The practical basis for this was [[faculty psychology]], or the belief in distinct intellectual faculties, such as the analytical, the mathematical, the linguistic, etc. Strengthening one faculty was believed to benefit other faculties as well (transfer of training). A key player in the late 19th-century educational humanism was U.S. Commissioner of Education W.T. Harris, whose "Five Windows of the Soul" ([[mathematics]], [[geography]], [[history]], [[grammar]], and [[literature]]/[[art]]) were believed especially appropriate for "development of the faculties". Educational humanists believe that "the best studies, for the best kids" are "the best studies" for all kids. {{Fact|date=July 2008}}While humanism as an educational current was widely supplanted in the United States by the innovations of the early 20th century, it still holds out in some [[preparatory school]]s and some [[high school]] disciplines (especially in [[literature]]).{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
   
 
== See also ==
  
== See also ==
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===Manifestos and statements setting out Humanist viewpoints ===
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===List of Humanists===
  
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see the category Humanists below
  
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=== Founding documents ===
  
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* [http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration Amsterdam Declaration 2002]
  
 
* [[Humanist Manifesto]]
  
* [[Humanist Manifesto]]
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* [[Amsterdam Declaration 2002]]
 
* [[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]
  
* [[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]
   
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=== Forms of humanism ===
  
   
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*[[Marxist humanism]]
  
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*[[New Humanism]]
  
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*[[Posthumanism]]
  
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*[[Religious Humanism|Religious (Spiritual) Humanism]]
  
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**[[Christian Existential Humanism]]
  
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**[[Humanistic Judaism]]
  
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*[[Renaissance humanism]]
  
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*[[Secular Humanism]]
  
−
*[[Transhumanism]]
  
   
 
=== Related philosophies ===
  
=== Related philosophies ===
−
*[[Extropianism]]
 +
* [[Agnosticism]]
−
*[[Pragmatism]]
 +
* [[Atheism]]
−
*[[Rationalism]]
 +
* [[Deism]]
−
*[[Universism]]
 +
* [[Existentialism]]
  +
* [[Eudaimonism]]
  +
* [[Extropianism]]
  +
* [[Infinitism]]
  +
* [[Marxist humanism]]
  +
* [[New Age|New Age Spirituality]]
  +
* [[Objectivity (philosophy)|Objectivity]]
  +
* [[Pragmatism]]
  +
* [[Permaculture]]
  +
* [[rationalist movement|Rationalism]]
  +
* [[Transhumanism]]
   
−
=== Organizations ===
  
−
*[[IHEU]] International Humanist and Ethical Union (the world union of humanist organisations)
  
−
*[[American Humanist Association]]
  
−
*[[British Humanist Association]]
  
−
*[[Continuum of Humanist Education]]
  
−
*[[Humanist International]]
  
−
*[[Humanist Movement]]
  
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*[[Humanist Party]]
  
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*[[Institute for Humanist Studies]]
  
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*[[Rationalist International]]
  
−
*[[Speciesism]]
  
   
 
=== Other ===
  
=== Other ===
−
*[[Antihumanism]]
 +
* [[Antihumanism]]
−
*[[Humanistic psychology]]
 +
* [[Community organizing]]
−
*[[Social psychology]]
 +
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
  +
* [[Human potential movement]]
−
*[[Religious freedom]] - freedom of religion ''and'' belief
  
  +
* [[Human rights]]
  +
* [[Misanthropy]]
  +
* [[Natural rights]]
  +
* [[Social psychology]]
  +
* [[Speciesism]]
  +
   
 
== References ==
  
== References ==
  +
=== Notes ===
  +
{{reflist|2}}
   
  +
=== Bibliography ===
−
*{{fnb|1}}[[Nicolas Walter|Walter, Nicolas]], 1997 ''Humanism - What's in the Word'' [[Rationalist Press Association]], London, ISBN 0-301-97001-7.
  
−
*Petrosyan, M. 1972 ''Humanism: Its Philosophical, Ethical, and Sociological Aspects''. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
+
*Petrosyan, M. 1972 ''Humanism: Its Philosophical, Ethical, and Sociological Aspects'', Progress Publishers, Moscow.
  +
*Barry, P. 2002 Beginning Theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory, 2nd edn, Manchester University Press, Manchester, U.K., p. 36
  +
*Everything2, 2002 Liberal Humanism, http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1321605
  +
*Liberal Humanism (Modernism) and Postmodernism 2001, http://herbergeronline.asu.edu/the220/notes/postmodern.html
  +
*Moon, B. 2001 Literary terms: a practical glossary, 2nd edn, Chalkface Press, Cotteslow, W.A., Australia, p.62
  +
*PhilWeb: Theoretical Resources Off– and On–line. "Liberal Humanism." http://www.phillwebb.net/History/TwentiethCentury/AngloAmerican/LiberalHumanism.htm
   
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== Web resources ==
 +
== External links ==
  +
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Humanism.ogg|2008-11-06}}
  +
</div>
   
  +
=== Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints===
−
=== Founding documents ===
  
−
* [http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration Amsterdam Declaration 2002]
 +
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html Humanist Manifesto I] (1933)
−
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php Humanist Manifesto]
 +
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html Humanist Manifesto II] (1973)
−
* [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration A Secular Humanist Declaration].
 +
* [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration A Secular Humanist Declaration] (1980)
  +
* [http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration Amsterdam Declaration] (2002)
  +
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php Humanist Manifesto III] (2003)
   
 
=== Introductions to humanism ===
  
=== Introductions to humanism ===
−  
−
* www.sterlingharwood.com and Sterling Harwood, "Why Be Moral: A Definition and Defense of Humanism," in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000), pp. 84-85.
  
 
* [http://www.jcn.com/humanism.html ''What Is Humanism?''] from the [[American Humanist Association]]
  
* [http://www.jcn.com/humanism.html ''What Is Humanism?''] from the [[American Humanist Association]]
  +
* Morain, Lloyd and Mary: Humanism as the Next Step, from the [[American Humanist Association]]
  +
* Huxley, Julian: The Humanist Frame
 
* [http://MHEC.humanists.net/HUMNISM.HTM Humanism: Why, What, and What For, In 882 Words]
  
* [http://MHEC.humanists.net/HUMNISM.HTM Humanism: Why, What, and What For, In 882 Words]
 
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/humanism-civic/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Civic Humanism]
  
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/humanism-civic/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Civic Humanism]
 
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07538b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article on Renaissance Humanism]
  
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07538b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article on Renaissance Humanism]
  +
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Humanism/ Humanism at the Open Directory Project]
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=== Organizations ===
  
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* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/ American Humanist Association]
  
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* [http://www.centerforinquiry.net Center for Inquiry International]
  
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* [http://www.secularhumanism.org Council for Secular Humanism]
  
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* [http://www.iheu.org International Humanist and Ethical Union]
  
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* [http://www.iheyo.org/ International Humanist and Ethical Youth Organisation]
  
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* [http://www.humaniststudies.org/ Institute for Humanist Studies]
 
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* [http://www.rationalistinternational.net Rationalist International]
  
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* [http://mb.humanists.ca Humanist Association of Manitoba]
  
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* [http://www.humanism.org.uk British Humanist Association]
  
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* [http://canada.humanists.net Humanist Association of Canada]
  
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* [http://www.humanistcenterofcultures.org/wiki/wiki.cgi Chicago humanist wiki pages]
  
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* [http://www.neuer-humanismus.de/ Humanist Movement - German]
  
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* [http://www.humanist-net.org Humanist n.e.t. - German/ English]
  
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* [http://www.human.no/ Norwegian Humanist Association]
  
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* [http://www.humanism.ro Romanian association Solidarity for Freedom of Conscience - Romanian/ English]
  
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* [http://nireland.humanists.net/ Humanist Association of N. Ireland]
  
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* [http://www.irish-humanists.org/ Humanist Association of Ireland]
  
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* [http://www.spiritualhumanism.org/ The Church of Spiritual Humanism]
  
−
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/hsfamily/huumanist.html HUUmanists, Unitarian Universalist publishers of the journal <i>Religious Humanism</i>]
  
   
 
=== Web articles ===
  
=== Web articles ===
−
* [http://www.sterlingharwood.com Sterling Harwood, "Why Be Moral? A Definition and Defense of Humanism."]
  
 
* [http://www.newhumanist.org.uk/ ''New Humanist''] British magazine from the Rationalist Press Association (RPA)
  
* [http://www.newhumanist.org.uk/ ''New Humanist''] British magazine from the Rationalist Press Association (RPA)
−
* [http://www.TheSystemHasYou.com/ Nanovirus - A humanist perspective on politics, technology and culture]
 +
* [http://www.TheSystemHasYou.com/ Nanovirus{{ndash}} A humanist perspective on politics, technology and culture]
  +
* [http://www.modernhumanist.com/ ''Modern Humanist''] An Online Journal for Modern Humanism, Humanist Philosophy & Life
   
 
=== Web books ===
  
=== Web books ===
  +
* [http://www.corliss-lamont.org/philos8.htm ''The Philosophy of Humanism''] by [[Corliss Lamont]]
  +
* [http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless ''A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning''] by Andrew Kernohan
  +
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=86cDAAAAMAAJ&rview=1 ''The New Humanism''] by Edward Howard Griggs
  +
* [[b:Thinking And Moral Problems|Thinking and Moral Problems]], [[b:Religions And Their Source|Religions and Their Source]], [[b:Purpose|Purpose]], and [[b:Developing A Universal Religion|Developing a Universal Religion]], four Parts of a Wikibook.
  +
  +
   
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* [http://www.humanisteurope.org/ Europen Region of the Humanist International]
  
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and [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Thinking_And_Moral_Problems Thinking And Moral Problems], [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Religions_And_Their_Source Religions And Their Source], [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Purpose Purpose], and [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Developing_A_Universal_Religion Developing A Universal Religion], four Parts of a Wikibook.
  
   
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=== Web directories ===
  
   
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* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317911/us53880/us62764/us282755/ LookSmart - Humanism] directory category
  
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* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Humanism/ Open Directory Project - Humanism] directory category
  
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* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/Philosophy/Humanism/ Yahoo - Humanism] directory category
  
   
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Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly rationality.[1][2] It is a component of a variety of more specific philosophical systems and has been incorporated into several religious schools of thought. Humanism can be considered as a process by which truth and morality is sought through human investigation. In focusing on the capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on belief without reason, the supernatural, or texts of allegedly divine origin. Humanists endorse universal morality based on the commonality of the human condition, suggesting that solutions to human social and cultural problems cannot be parochial.[3]

Aspects

Religion

Humanism rejects deference to supernatural beliefs in resolving human affairs but not necessarily the beliefs themselves; indeed some strains of Humanism are compatible with some religions. It is generally compatible with atheism and agnosticism but doesn't require either of these. The word "ignostic" (American) or "indifferentist" (British, including OED) are sometimes applied to Humanism, on the grounds that Humanism is an ethical process, not a dogma about the existence or otherwise of gods; Humanists simply have no need to be concerned with such questions. Agnosticism or atheism on their own do not necessarily entail Humanism; many different and sometimes incompatible philosophies happen to be atheistic in nature. There is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere, and not all are humanistic.[4][5]

As Humanism encompasses intellectual currents running through a wide variety of philosophical and religious thought, several strains of Humanism allow it to fulfill, supplement or supplant the role of religions, and in particular, to be embraced as a complete life stance. For more on this, see Humanism (life stance). In a number of countries, for the purpose of laws that give rights to "religions", the secular life stance has become legally recognized as equivalent to a "religion" for this purpose.[6] In the United States, the Supreme Court recognized that Humanism is equivalent to a religion in the limited sense of authorizing Humanists to conduct ceremonies commonly carried out by officers of religious bodies. The relevant passage is in a footnote to Torcaso v. Watkins (1961). It is often alleged by fundamentalist critics of Humanism that the Supreme Court "declared Humanism to be a religion," however the Court's statement, a mere footnote at most, clearly does not in fact do so; it simply asserts an equivalency of Humanists' right to act in ways usual to a religion, such as ceremonial recognition of life's landmarks.

Renaissance humanism, and its emphasis on returning to the sources, contributed to the Protestant reformation by helping to gain what Protestants believe was a more accurate translation of Biblical texts.

Knowledge

According to Humanism, it is up to humans to find the truth, as opposed to seeking it through revelation, mysticism, tradition, or anything else that is incompatible with the application of logic to the observable evidence. In demanding that humans avoid blindly accepting unsupported beliefs, it supports scientific skepticism and the scientific method, rejecting authoritarianism and extreme skepticism, and rendering faith an unacceptable basis for action. Likewise, Humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on the best understanding of one's individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental truth or an arbitrarily local source.[7]

Optimism

Humanism features an optimistic attitude about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that all people can live up to the Humanist ideals without help. If anything, there is the recognition that living up to one's potential is hard work and requires the assistance of others. The ultimate goal is human flourishing; making life better for all humans, and as the most conscious species, also promoting concern for the welfare of other sentient beings. The focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world a better place for those who come after.

History

Contemporary humanism can be traced back through the Renaissance and back to the Islamic Golden Age to its ancient Greek roots. Humanism can also be traced back to the time of Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE) and Confucius (551–479 BCE) and the Warring States Period, though the term humanism is more widely associated with Western philosophers. [How to reference and link to summary or text]

The term humanism was coined in 1808, based on the 15th century Italian term umanista, which was used to designate a teacher or student of classic literature. The evolution of the meaning of the word humanism is fully explored in Nicolas Walter's Humanism – What's in the Word.[8]

Greek humanism

Main article: Greek philosophy

Sixth century BCE pantheists Thales of Miletus and Xenophanes of Colophon prepared the way for later Greek humanist thought. Thales is credited with creating the maxim "Know thyself", and Xenophanes refused to recognize the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. Later Anaxagoras, often described as the "first freethinker", contributed to the development of science as a method of understanding the universe. These Ionian Greeks were the first thinkers to recognize that nature is available to be studied separately from any alleged supernatural realm. Pericles, a pupil of Anaxagoras, influenced the development of democracy, freedom of thought, and the exposure of superstitions. Although little of their work survives, Protagoras and Democritus both espoused agnosticism and a spiritual morality not based on the supernatural. The historian Thucydides is noted for his scientific and rational approach to history.[9]

Islamic humanism

Main article: Islamic ethics#Humanism

Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love poetry, history and philosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism.[10] Certain aspects of Renaissance humanism has its roots in the medieval Islamic world, including the "art of dictation, called in Latin, ars dictaminis," and "the humanist attitude toward classical language", in this case classical Arabic.[11]

Renaissance humanism

Main article: Renaissance humanism

Renaissance humanism was a movement that affected the cultural, political, social, and literary landscape of Europe. Beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, Renaissance humanism revived the study of Latin and Greek, with the resultant revival of the study of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.(see Burckhard The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy) The revival was based on interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation on the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and meekness. Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and an essential element in the path towards God. [How to reference and link to summary or text] Civic humanism, "civic" which is rooted from the latin word "civis" meaning citizen. Humanism's divergence from orthodox Christianity can be identified with the condemnation of Pelagianism by Jerome and Augustine. Like the Humanists, Pelagius perceived humans as possessing inherent capacity for developing the qualities that the church perceived as necessitating the gift of grace from God. Pelagius rejected the doctrine of original sin. The Humanists likewise recognize humans as born not with a burden of inherited sin due to their ancestry but with potential for both good and evil which will develop in this life as their characters are formed. The Humanists therefore reject Calvinistic predestination, and understandably therefore arouse the hostility of Protestant fundamentalists.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

Renaissance humanists believed that the liberal arts (music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of wealth. They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

Noteworthy humanist scholars from this period include the Dutch theologian Erasmus, the English author (and Roman Catholic saint) Thomas More, the French writer François Rabelais, the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch and the Italian scholar Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

Modern era

One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organizations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in 1853 in London. This early group was democratically organized, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

In February 1877, the word "Humanism" was publicly used, apparently for the first time in America, to apply to Felix Adler, pejoratively. Adler, however, did not embrace the term, and instead coined the name "Ethical Culture" for his new movement – a movement which still exists in the now Humanist-affiliated New York Society for Ethical Culture.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

Active in the early 1920s, F.C.S. Schiller considered his work to be tied to the Humanist movement. Schiller himself was influenced by the pragmatism of William James. In 1929 Charles Francis Potter founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included Julian Huxley, John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published Humanism: A New Religion. Throughout the 1930s Potter was a well-known advocate of women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.[12]

Raymond B. Bragg, the associate editor of The New Humanist, sought to consolidate the input of L. M. Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference.

Bragg asked Roy Wood Sellars to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the Humanist Manifesto in 1933. The Manifesto and Potter's book became the cornerstones of modern humanism. Both of these sources envision humanism as a religion.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

In 1941 the American Humanist Association was organized. Noted members of The AHA included Isaac Asimov, who was the president from 1985 until his death in 1992, and writer Kurt Vonnegut, who followed as honorary president until his death in 2007. Robert Buckman was the head of the association in Canada, and is now an honorary president.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

After World War II, three prominent humanists became the first directors of major divisions of the United Nations: Julian Huxley of UNESCO, Brock Chisholm of the World Health Organization, and John Boyd-Orr of the Food and Agricultural Organization.[13]

Humanism (life stance)

Main article: Humanism (life stance)

Humanism (capital 'H', no adjective such as "secular")[14] is a comprehensive life stance that upholds human reason, ethics, and justice, and rejects supernaturalism, pseudoscience, and superstition.

The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) is the world union of more than one hundred Humanist, rationalist, secular, ethical culture, and freethought organizations in more than 40 countries. The Happy Human is the official symbol of the IHEU as well as being regarded as a universally recognised symbol for those that call themselves Humanists (as opposed to "humanists"). In 2002 the IHEU General Assembly unanimously adopted the Amsterdam Declaration 2002 which represents the official defining statement of World Humanism.[15]

All member organisations of the International Humanist and Ethical Union are required by IHEU bylaw 5.1[16] to accept the IHEU Minimum Statement on Humanism:

Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality.

Other forms of humanism

Humanism is also sometimes used to describe "humanities" scholars, (particularly scholars of the Greco-Roman classics). As mentioned above, it is sometimes used to mean humanitarianism. There is also a school of humanistic psychology, and an educational method.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

Educational humanism

Humanism, as a current in education, began to dominate U.S. school systems in the 17th century. It held that the studies that develop human intellect are those that make humans "most truly human". The practical basis for this was faculty psychology, or the belief in distinct intellectual faculties, such as the analytical, the mathematical, the linguistic, etc. Strengthening one faculty was believed to benefit other faculties as well (transfer of training). A key player in the late 19th-century educational humanism was U.S. Commissioner of Education W.T. Harris, whose "Five Windows of the Soul" (mathematics, geography, history, grammar, and literature/art) were believed especially appropriate for "development of the faculties". Educational humanists believe that "the best studies, for the best kids" are "the best studies" for all kids. [How to reference and link to summary or text]While humanism as an educational current was widely supplanted in the United States by the innovations of the early 20th century, it still holds out in some preparatory schools and some high school disciplines (especially in literature).[How to reference and link to summary or text]

See also

Manifestos and statements setting out Humanist viewpoints

  • Humanist Manifesto
  • Amsterdam Declaration 2002
  • A Secular Humanist Declaration


Related philosophies


Other


References

Notes

  1. ↑ (2007) Compact Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press. "humanism n. 1 a rationalistic system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. 2 a Renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholastic-ism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought."This article handles sense 1. See history section and main article Renaissance Humanism for sense 2.
  2. ↑ (1999) Collins Concise Dictionary, HarperCollins. "The rejection of religion in favour of a belief in the advancement of humanity by its own efforts.".
  3. ↑ Definitions of humanism (subsection). Institute for Humanist Studies.
  4. ↑ Baggini, Julian (2003). Atheism: A Very Short Introduction, 3–4, Oxford: Oxford University Press. "The atheist's rejection of belief in God is usually accompanied by a broader rejection of any supernatural or transcendental reality. For example, an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal souls, life after death, ghosts, or supernatural powers. Although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist... the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental."
  5. ↑ Winston, Robert (Ed.) (2004). Human, New York: DK Publishing, Inc. "Neither atheism nor agnosticism is a full belief system, because they have no fundamental philosophy or lifestyle requirements. These forms of thought are simply the absence of belief in, or denial of, the existence of deities."
  6. ↑ Note: The topic of this article has a small initial character as Wikipedia guidelines prescribe for the name of a philosophy. The life stance named Humanism is capitalized as prescribed for the name of a religion. The International Humanist and Ethical Union, coordinating organized Humanist bodies worldwide, has recommended use of the capital H by its affiliates
  7. ↑ Lamont, Corliss (1997). The Philosophy of Humanism, Eighth Edition, 252–253, Humanist Press: Amherst, New York. "Conscience, the sense of right and wrong and the insistent call of one's better, more idealistic, more social-minded self, is a social product. Feelings of right and wrong that at first have their locus within the family gradually develop into a pattern for the tribe or city, then spread to the larger unit of the nation, and finally from the nation to humanity as a whole. Humanism sees no need for resorting to supernatural explanations or sanctions at any point in the ethical process."
  8. ↑ Walter, Nicolas, 1997 Humanism – What's in the Word, Rationalist Press Association, London, ISBN 0-301-97001-7.
  9. ↑ Potter, Charles (1930). Humanism A new Religion, 64–69, Simon and Schuster.
  10. ↑ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
  11. ↑ Makdisi, George (April-June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society 109 (2): 175–182, doi:10.2307/604423 
  12. ↑ Stringer-Hye, Richard Charles Francis Potter. Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography. Unitarian Universalist Historical Society. URL accessed on 2008-05-01.
  13. ↑ American Humanist Association
  14. ↑ Doerr, Edd. Humanism Unmodified. The Humanist. URL accessed on 2008-07-05.
  15. ↑ Amsterdam Declaration 2002. International Humanist and Ethical Union. URL accessed on 2008-07-05.
  16. ↑ IHEU's Bylaws. International Humanist and Ethical Union. URL accessed on 2008-07-05.

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