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'''Hinduism''' is a [[religion]]<ref name = trad>Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. [[René Guénon]] in his'' Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines'' (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, proposes a definition of the term "religion" and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to [[Hindu]] doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58).</ref> that originated in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Hinduism is often referred to as '''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}''' by its practitioners, a [[Sanskrit]] phrase meaning "the eternal [[dharma|law]]."<ref name = san>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The modern use of the term can be traced to late 19th century [[Hindu reform movements]] (J. Zavos, ''Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India'', Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "[[Swami Bhaktivedant]]a and the Encounter with Religions," ''Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism'', edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987); less literally also rendered "eternal way" (so {{cite book |author=Harvey, Andrew |title=Teachings of the Hindu Mystics |publisher=Shambhala |location=Boulder |year=2001 |pages=xiii |isbn=1-57062-449-6 |nopp=true}}). See also [[René Guénon]], ''Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines'' (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, part III, chapter 5 "The Law of Manu", p. 146. On the meaning of the word "Dharma", see also [[René Guénon]], ''Studies in Hinduism'', Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-69-3, chapter 5, p. 45</ref> Hindu beliefs vary widely, with concepts of God and/or gods ranging from [[pantheism]], [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]], with [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] being the most popular deities. Other notable characteristics include a belief in [[reincarnation]] and [[karma]], as well as personal duty, or [[dharma]].
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Among its roots is the [[historical Vedic religion]] of [[Iron Age India]], and as such Hinduism is often stated to be the "[[oldest religion|oldest religious tradition]]" or "oldest living major tradition."<ref name = webster>{{cite book | title = Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia| publisher = Merriam-Webster | date = 2000 | page = 751}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Laderman, Gary |title=Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif |year=2003 |pages=119|isbn=1-57607-238-X |oclc= |doi= |quote=world's oldest living civilization and religion}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Turner, Jeffrey S.|title=Encyclopedia of relationships across the lifespan|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn|year=1996|pages=359|isbn=0-313-29576-X|quote=It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}</ref> It is formed of diverse traditions and types and has no single founder.<ref>{{Harvnb|Osborne|2005|p=9}}</ref> Hinduism is the [[Major world religions|world's third largest religion]] after [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], with approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref> Other [[Hinduism by country|countries with large Hindu populations]] can be found across southern Asia.
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{{Hinduism_small}}
  
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'''Hinduism''' ([[Sanskrit]]/[[Hindi]]: '''{{lang|hi|हिन्दु धर्म}}'''; also known as ''Sanātana Dharma'' - {{lang|hi|सनातन् धर्म}}, and ''Vaidika Dharma'' - {{lang|hi|वैदिक धर्म}}) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the [[Veda|Vedas]], and is generally regarded as one of the oldest religions still practised in the world. The term Hinduism is an amorphous concept as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. [[Hinduism]] evolved from a [[monolithic]] religion into a multitude of traditions over a period of 4000 years. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. With an array of deities, all manifestations of the one Supreme [[monistic]] [[Brahman]], are venerated. Thus, Hinduism is often misconceived to be a polytheistic religion, although the belief in a singular, Universal Soul is a fundamental tenet of the Hindu faith. Beliefs, codes and principles vary from region to region. It is the third largest [[religion]] in the world, with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the [[Indian subcontinent]], chiefly in [[India]]. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of [[Nepal]] is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion.
  
   
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See [[Hindu]] for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus.
 
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Hinduism's vast [[Hindu texts|body of scriptures]] is divided into [[Śruti]] ("revealed") and [[Smriti]] ("remembered"). These scriptures discuss [[Hindu theology|theology]], [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]] and [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], and provide information on the practice of [[dharma]] (religious living). Among these texts, the ''[[Vedas]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads]]'' are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the ''[[Tantras]]'', the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agama]]'', the ''[[Puranas|{{IAST|Purāṇas}}]]'' and the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] ''[[Mahabharata|{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and ''[[Ramayana|{{IAST|Rāmāyaṇa}}]]''. The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{IAST|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'', a treatise from the ''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'', spoken by [[Krishna]], is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''.<ref>The ''Gita Dhyanam'' is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the ''Bhagavad Gita''. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them. ({{Harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|pp=67–74}})</ref>
   
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== Core Concepts ==
 
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===The Eternal Way ===
  
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"Sanātana Dharma" ({{lang|hi|सनातन् धर्म}}, ''The Eternal Values''), the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within ''and'' beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied ''Soul'' of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine [[Brahman]] ({{lang|hi|ब्रह्मन्}}, pronounced as /brəh mən/, nominative singular being {{lang|hi|ब्रह्म}} or /brəh mə/), the ''Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Reality'' or the ''Cosmic Spirit''.
  
   
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==Etymology==
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Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following [[mantra]]:
  
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{{see|Names of India}}
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''[[Hindu|Hindū]]'' is the [[Persian language|Persian]] name of the [[Indus River]], first encountered in the Old [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''Hindu'' (həndu), corresponding to Vedic [[Sanskrit]] ''Sindhu'', the [[Indus River]].<ref name=Hindu>{{Harvnb|Lipner|1998|pp=7–8}}</ref> The [[Rig Veda]] mentions the land of the [[Indo-Aryans]] as ''[[Sapta Sindhu]]'' (the land of the seven rivers in northwestern [[South Asia]], one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to ''Hapta Həndu'' in the ''[[Avestan language|Avesta]]'' (''Vendidad or Videvdad'' 1.18)—the sacred scripture of [[Zoroastrianism]]. The term was used for those who lived in the [[Indian subcontinent]] on or beyond the "Sindhu".<ref> See [[Indo-European sound laws]] for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"</ref> In Islam the [[Arabic]] texts - ''al-Hind'' (the Hind) also refers to 'the land of the people of modern day India'.<ref>Thapar, R. 1993. ''Interpreting Early India.'' Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77</ref>
   
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The Persian term (Middle Persian ''Hindūk'', New Persian ''Hindū'') entered India with the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and appears in South Indian and Kashmiri texts from at least 1323 CE,<ref> David Lorenzen, ''Who Invented Hinduism?'' New Delhi 2006, pp. 24-33; Rajatarangini of Yonaraja : "Hinduka" </ref> and increasingly so during [[British Raj|British rule]]. Since the end of the 18th century the word has been used as an umbrella term for most of the religious, spiritual, and philosophical traditions of the sub-continent, excluding the distinct religions of [[Sikhism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].
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:{{lang|hi|'''ॐ''' ''असतो मा सद्गमय तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय मृत्योर्मा मृतम्गमय''}}
  
   
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The term ''Hindu'' was introduced to the English. It generally denotes the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.<ref>"...that many-sided and all-enfolding culture which we in the West have chosen to call Hinduism" Jan Gonda, ''Visnuism and Sivaism'', Munshiram Manoharlal. 1996, ISBN 812150287X p. 1. ''cited by'' {{cite journal
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:'''OM''' ''Asaţo mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotiŗgamaya, mŗityoŗmā mŗitam gamaya''
  
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|author = Welbon, G.R.
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:"OM (Lead me) from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."
  
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|year = Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 1, 98+100. Mar., 1975.
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|title = Review: Love of God According to Saiva Siddhanta: A Study in the Mysticism and Theology of Saivism by Mariasusay Dhanamoy
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|url =
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|accessdate = 2008-05-04
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}}</ref>
   
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==Typology==
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[[Image:Samsara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus believe that every living being is an eternally existing spirit (the soul or the self). Upon physical death, this soul passes from one body to another in accordance with the laws of Karma and reincarnation. {{ref|re}}]]
  
   
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Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six [[Hindu philosophy|darshanas]], only two schools, [[Vedanta]] and [[Raja Yoga|Yoga]] survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Smartism]] and [[Shaktism]]. The vast majority of present day Hindus can be categorized under one of these four groups, although there are many other, partly overlapping, allegiances and denominations.{{Fact|date=August 2008}}
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=== Basic beliefs ===
  
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What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in [[Dharma]] (individual ethics, duties and obligations), [[Samsara]] ([[Reincarnation]]/rebirth), [[Karma]] ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and [[Moksha]] (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as ''[[Bhakti]]'' (devotion), ''[[Karma]]'' (selfless action) and ''[[Jnana]]'' (enlightenment, knowledge), and of course, belief in God ([[Ishvara]]/[[Bhagavan]]). ''Reincarnation'' or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains [[Moksha]], is governed by [[Karma]]. The philosophy of ''Karma'' lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the [[soul]] or the self, called as [[Atman|ātman]]. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine, and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, as per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even [[Heaven]] ([[swarga|Svarga Loka]]) and [[Hell]] ([[Naraka|Naraka Loka]]) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as [[moksha]], which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus.
 
   
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McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six more generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex object:<ref>J. McDaniel ''Hinduism'', in John Corrigan, ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion'', (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0195170210</ref>
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The other principles include the [[Guru-shishya tradition]], the Divinity of Word of [[Aum|OM]] and the power of [[mantra]]s, manifestations of the divine's spirit in all forms of existence ([[pantheism]]); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the [[Atman]]/[[Brahman]] is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine. Another interesting belief is that though the Hindu mythology mentions a class of evil beings (demons, called Asuras or Rākshasas), opposed to the celestial spirits (Devās), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central [[Devil]] or [[Satan]]. This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance.
 
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*[[Folk Hinduism]], as based on local traditions and cults of local [[deities]] at a communal level and spanning thorough to pre-historic times or at least prior to written [[Vedas]].
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*[[Vedic Hinduism]] as still being practiced by traditionalist [[brahmin]]s, for example [[shrautin]]s.
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*[[Vedantic]] Hinduism, for example [[Advaita]] ([[Smartism]]), as based on philosophical approach of the [[Upanishads]].
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*[[Yoga|Yogic]] Hinduism, especially based on the [[Yoga Sutra]]s of [[Patanjali]].
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*"Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on the notion of [[Karma]], and societal norms such as [[Hindu teaching and customs of marriage|Hindu marriage customs]] etc.
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*[[Bhakti]] or devotionalism, especially as in [[Vaishnavism]].
   
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==Definitions==
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===Practice (Yoga Dharma)===
  
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Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion ([[Bhakti Yoga]]), selfless service ([[Karma Yoga]]), knowledge and meditation (Jnana or [[Raja Yoga]]). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Sutras]]. The [[Upanishad]]s are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to [[moksha]], or [[nirvana]].
  
   
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The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief and Hinduism's dogmatic openness makes it difficult to define it as a religion according to the traditional Western conceptions.<Ref>Bryan S. Turner "Essays on the Sociology of Fate - Page 275"</ref> While Hinduism is a clear practical concept to the majority of adherents,{{Fact|date=August 2008}} many expressed a problem arriving at a definition of the term, mainly because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated or covered by it.<ref name = flood01/> While sometimes referred to as a religion, it is more often defined as a religious tradition,<ref name = trad/> it is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions and most diverse in religious traditions.<ref>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, p. 434</ref><ref name = webster/><ref>{{citation
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===The Four Objectives of Life===
 
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| author = Vaz, P.
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Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the [[purusharthas]], the "four objectives of life". They are [[kama]], [[artha]], [[dharma]] and [[moksha]]. It is said that all beings seek ''kama'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of ''dharma'' (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is ''moksha'' (salvation), also known as [[Mukti]] (spiritual liberation), [[Samadhi]], [[Nirvana]], or escape from [[Samsara]] (the cycle of birth and death).
  
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| year = 2001
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| title = Coexistence of Secularism and Fundamentalism in India
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| journal = Handbook of Global Social Policy
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| url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&id=opHYPSvPpWYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA123&dq=oldest+major+tradition+Hinduism&ots=dvtYVKGW2O&sig=evj3yKYq4oNkrZDX1tQ_UrKLTb8
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| accessdate = 2008-06-26
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|quote = Hinduism is the oldest of all the major world religions.
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|pages = 124
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
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| author = Eastman, R.
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| year = 1999
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| title = The Ways of Religion: An Introduction to the Major Traditions
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| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA
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}}</ref> Most [[Hindu denominations|Hindu traditions]] revere a body of religious or [[sastra|sacred literature]], the [[Veda]]s, although there are exceptions to it; some religious traditions regard certain particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on it co-exist; some [[Hindu philosophies]] postulate a [[theism|theistic]] [[ontology]] of creation, sustenance, and destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are [[Atheism in Hinduism|atheists]]. Hinduism is sometimes characterized with the belief in reincarnation (''[[samsara]]'') determined by the law of [[karma]], and that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death, however other religions of the region, such as [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], also believe in this, outside of the scope of Hinduism.<ref name = flood01/> Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all the living, historical world religions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Joel Beversluis |title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality (Sourcebook of the World's Religions, 3rd ed) |publisher=New World Library |location=Novato, Calif |year=2000 |pages=50 |isbn=1-57731-121-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Despite its complexity Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest, but also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into the prehistory.<ref> {{Harvnb|Weightman|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}</ref>
   
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A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India and prominent theologian, [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] states that it is not "just a faith", but in itself related to the union of reason and intuition, he explicitly suggests, that it can not be defined, but is only to be experienced.<ref>''Bhagavad Gita'', [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]: "Hinduism is not just a faith. It is the union of reason and intuition that can not be defined but is only to be experienced."</ref> Similarly some academics are suggesting that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than a well defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not as central but still within the category. Based on that Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.<ref>Ferro-Luzzi,(1991)''The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism'' in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) ''Hinduism Reconsidered''. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187-95</ref>
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===The four stages of Life===
  
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Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four ''[[Ashrama]]s'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha|Grihastha]], [[Vanaprastha]] and [[Sanyasa]]. The first quarter of one's life, ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' ("meditation, or study of the Brahman") is spent in [[celibate]], controlled, [[sober]] and pure contemplation under a [[Guru]], building up the mind for the realization of truth. [[Grihastya]] is the [[householder]]'s stage, alternatively known as [[samsara]], in which one marries and satisfies [[Kama (Hinduism)|kama]] and [[artha]] within one's married and [[professional]] life. [[Vanaprastha]] is gradual detachment from the [[material world]], ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in [[contemplation]] of the Divine, and making holy [[pilgrimage]]s. Finally, in [[sanyasa]], the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life, and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or, for liberation).
 
   
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Hinduism as one of the [[world religion]]s we know today had only occurred or perceived since the 19th century, when the term 'Hindu-ism' started being used by leaders of Hindu reform movements or revivalists,<ref name = san/> and, often considered to be biased, Western orientalists or the "first Indologists". However it is clearly accepted that sources of Hinduism and the "streams" which feed in to it are very ancient, extending back to the Indus Valley civilization and earliest expressions of [[historical Vedic religion]].<ref> Smart, (1993) ''The Formation Rather than the Origin of a Tradition'',in DISKUS: A Disembodied Journal of Religious Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1</ref> It is not an accepted view that Hinduism is the construction of Western orientalists to make sense of the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the [[Vedic tradition]]s, however some many have suggested it is.<ref>Smith, W.C. (1962) The Meaning and End of Religion. San Francisco, Harper and Row. p. 65</ref><ref>Stietencron, on, ''Hinduism: On the Proper Use of A Deceptive Term'', pp.1-22</ref><ref>Halbfass, (1991) ''Tradition and Reflection''. Albany, SUNY Press. pp. 1-22</ref>
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[[Image:Gita1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Lord Krishna]] revealing the eternal super-consciousness to [[Arjuna]]]]
  
   
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Problem with the single definition or of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' is often associated to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say 'Hinduisms', does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or denomination. The forms of [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] are seen, not as an alternative to Hinduism but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between [[Vedism]], [[Brahmanism]], and Hinduism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
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===The four classes of the society===
  
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|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/1398925
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|title=JSTOR: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Apr., 1984 ), pp. 234-236
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|publisher=www.jstor.org
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}}</ref> Some suggest that Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a [[creed]]". It is therefore a very different kind of [[religion]] in these respects to the monolithic tradition of Islam, while some suggest there are stronger affinities with the structure of [[Judaism]].<ref name = flood01/>
   
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From the western point of view, the understanding of Hinduism was mediated by Western notions of what religion is and how it relates to more ancient forms of belief.<ref>
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The Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession — the '''Brahmanas''': teachers and priests; the '''Kshatriyas''': warriors, kings and administrators; the '''Vaishyas''': farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the '''Shudras''': servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a '''varna''', and the system was called '''Varna Vyavastha'''. It is highly debatable whether the varna system is an integral part of Hinduism or not; and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures. The Shruti texts make very rare mentions of this system at some places, without defining things very much. The Smriti texts (including the [[Manusmriti]]) have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was '''only''' based upon the profession (and character), and there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system became fixed by '''birth'''. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of '''outcastes''' outside the Varna Vyavastha), the system evolved into the [[caste]] system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are slowly fading away in modern India, but tension and prejudice still remain.
  
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{{cite web
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|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/604496
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|title= ''Review: Imagining India'' by Ronald Inden: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 112, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1992 ), pp. 674-677
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|publisher=www.jstor.org
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|accessdate=2008-08-04
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|last=David Kopf
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|first=
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}}
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</ref> It is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "[[faith]]" as a synonym for "religion".<ref name = flood01>{{Harvnb|Flood|2001|loc=Defining Hinduism}}</ref> Some academics<ref>''Hinduism in Britain'' Kim Knott, (2000) The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and a United States.</ref> and many practitioners refer to Hinduism with a native definition, as '{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}', a [[Sanskrit]] phrase meaning "the eternal [[dharma|law]]" or "eternal way".<ref name = san/><ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |author=Harvey, Andrew |title=Teachings of the Hindu Mystics |publisher=Shambhala |location=Boulder |year=2001 |pages=xiii |isbn=1-57062-449-6 |nopp=true}}</ref>
   
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==Beliefs==
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=== Nature of God ===
  
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[[Image:Halebid3.JPG|thumb| Temple carving at [[Hoysaleswara temple]] representing the [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]].]]
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The Vedas depict [[Brahman]] as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul ([[Paramatman]]). '''Brahman''' is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both [[transcendent]] and [[immanent]], [[absolute infinite]] [[existence]], and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end , who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity [[Brahmā]]) is seen as a pantheistic '''Cosmic Spirit'''. The personality behind Brahman is known as Parabrahman (The superior Brahman). Brahman may be viewed as without personal attributes ([[Nirguna Brahman]]) or with attributes ([[Saguna Brahman]]).
 
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Hinduism refers to the religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to the major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of adherents that it is such.<ref name=weightman>{{Harvnb|Weightman|1998|pp=262–264}} "It is Hindu self-awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be one single religious universe, no matter how richly varied its contents, and make it a significant and potent force alongside the other religions of the world."</ref>
   
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Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), ''[[Dharma]]'' (ethics/duties), ''[[Samsara|{{IAST|Samsāra}}]]'' (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), ''[[Karma]]'' (action and subsequent reaction), ''[[Moksha]]'' (liberation from ''samsara''), and the various [[Yoga]]s (paths or practices).
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Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of '''God''' is '''Ishvara''' (lit. the '''Supreme Lord'''). In [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosophy, Ishvara is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon human mind. Thus according to [[Smarta]] views, the divine can be with attributes, [[Saguna Brahman]], and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. For the Hindus, Ishvara is full of innumerable auspicious qualities; He is omniscient, omnipotent, perfect, just, merciful, glorious, mysterious, and yet full of love. He is the Creator, the Ruler and the Destroyer of this universe. Some believe Him to be infinite and incorporeal. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, [[Saguna Brahman]] is viewed solely as [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]]—so their followers may attribute an anthropomorphic form to Ishvara. Ishvara is also called as [[Bhagavan]] in modern Hindi. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or [[Shakti]]. However, the Divine and divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the divine and the actual heat [[Shakti]].
 
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<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jefferey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | date = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>
   
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===Concept of God===
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One of the fundamental principles of Hinduism is depicted in the following words which have been widely accepted as true over numerous hindu generations:- ''ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti'' ([[Rig Veda]] 1.164.46) meaning 'The True God is '''one''', though the sages address him by multiple names'. Thus Hindus maintain that [[Ishvara]] is One and only One, although He can be sometimes viewed as having many manifestations such as Vishnu or as Shiva or the Mother Goddess; again note that Vaishnavites and Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as Ishvara. The terms Ishvara and [[deva]]s must not be confused. [[deva_(deity)|Devas]] could be as numerous as [http://www.indhistory.com/hindu-god.html 330 million]. These '''Devas''' may variously be translated into English as gods (sic), demi-gods, deities, celestial spirits or angels. Thus, it is false to say that Hinduism has 330 million Gods, which are more correctly [[devas]] or celestial beings; even the liberal [[Smarta]] denomination recognizes only six forms of God to be objects of worship; other denominations of Hinduism, such as [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]] follows a singular concept of God, or [[panentheistic]] [[monotheism]].
  
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Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning [[monotheism]], [[polytheism]],<ref name= "EBpolytheism">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |title=Polytheism|accessdate= 2007-07-05 |year=2007 |work= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> [[panentheism]], [[pantheism]], [[monism]], and [[Atheism in Hinduism|atheism]]. It is sometimes referred to as [[henotheistic]] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.<ref name-heno> See {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}} and {{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |title="Henotheism" |accessdate=2007-07-05 |last=Gill |first= N.S |work= |publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]] }}</ref>
   
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Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'' — is eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams2037">{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}}</ref> According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), this ''Atman'' is ultimately indistinct from [[Brahman]], the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called [[Nondualism|non-dualist]].<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential>{{Harvnb||Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ''ātman'' is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987}}</ref> The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ''ātman'' as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches ''moksha'' (liberation or freedom).<ref name="monierwilliams2037"/><ref name=werner37>{{Harvnb|Werner| 1994|p= p37}}</ref>
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Another important feature of Smarta Hinduism is the Hindu [[Trinity (disambiguation)|Trinity]] of Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva, i.e., [[Trimurti]], signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Note that Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as '''Mahādevas'''.
  
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Though all the different paths of '''Moksha''' (salvation) are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smarta traditions, depicts an ''inclusively monotheistic (or monistic)'' religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.
  
   
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[[Dualistic]] schools (see [[Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending on the sect. The ''ātman'' is dependent on God, while ''moksha'' depends on love towards God and on God's grace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=7}}</ref> When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'' ("The Lord"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict.">{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001}}</ref>), ''[[Bhagavan]]'' ("The Auspicious One"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>) or ''[[Parameshwara (God)|Parameshwara]]'' ("The Supreme Lord"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>).<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential/> However interpretations of ''Ishvara'' vary, ranging from non-belief in ''Ishvara'' by followers of [[Mimamsa]]kas, to identifying ''Brahman'' and ''Ishvara'' as one, as in Advaita.<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential/> There are also schools like the [[Samkhya]] which have [[Atheism in Hinduism|atheistic]] leanings.<ref name=samkhyaatheism>{{Harvnb|Sen Gupta|1986|p= viii }}</ref>
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== Denominations ==
  
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{{main|Hindu denominations}}
  
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Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share [[rituals]], [[beliefs]], traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal ([[moksha]], salvation) and on their concept of God ([[Ishvara]]). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.
 
   
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===Devas and avatars===
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Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians and Muslims differ on their view of God, Hindus believe in one God but differ in their views of God. The two primary form of differences are between the sects of [[Vaishnavism]] which conceives God as [[Vishnu]], and [[Shaivism]] which conceives God as [[Shiva]]. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. [[Shaktism]] worships a female divine or goddess [[Devi]] or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of Shiva personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a pantheistic God. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami [[Dayananda Saraswati]]'s [[Arya Samaj]] which condemns [[iconolatry]], veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices ([[yagna|yajña]]).
 
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[[Image:RadheShyam07.jpg|thumb|Krishna (left), the eighth incarnation ([[avatar]]) of Vishnu or [[svayam bhagavan]], with his consort [[Radha]], worshiped as [[Radha Krishna]] across a number of traditions - traditional painting from the 1700s.]]
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The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (or ''[[Devi|{{IAST|devī}}]]'' in feminine form; ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".<ref>For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. The highest are the immortal [[Mahadeva]]s, such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, are described as their offspring: they are "born", and their "lifespan" is quite limited. In ISKCON the word is translated as "demigods", although it can also denote such heavenly denizens as [[gandharva]]s. See: {{cite web|url=http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm|title=Vedic cosmology|accessdate=2007-06-25|work=Vedic Knowledge Online|publisher=VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.</ref> The ''devas'' are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in [[art]], [[architecture]] and through [[icon]]s, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in [[Indian epic poetry]] and the [[Purana]]s. They are, however, often distinguished from [[Ishvara]], a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in a particular form as their ''{{IAST|[[iṣṭa devatā]]}}'', or chosen ideal.<ref name=werner80>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Renou|1961|p= 55}}</ref> The choice is a matter of individual preference<ref name=harman1>{{Harvnb |Harman |2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1/>
   
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Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore ''dharma'' in society and guide humans to ''moksha''. Such an incarnation is called an ''[[avatar]]''. The most prominent avatars are of [[Vishnu]] and include [[Rama]] (protagonist in [[Ramayana]]) and [[Krishna]] (a central figure in the epic [[Mahabharata]]).
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==== Vaishnavism ====
  
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[[Image:Birlamandirdelhi.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The [[Birla Mandir]] is one of the most famous Vaishnavite temples in India.]]
  
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{{main|Vaishnavism}}
  
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A Vaishnavite considers '''Vishnu''' (&#2357;&#2367;&#2359;&#2381;&#2339;&#2369;) as the supreme being, and considers other deities as subordinate (like demi-gods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that Vishnu ultimately grants moksha. Vaisnavites, consider worship of other gods as secondary due to Krishna's (who is a form of Vishnu) sayings in the Gita :
 
   
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===Karma and samsara===
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'' Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me'' (Gita: 7:21-22)
  
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{{main|Karma in Hinduism}}
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''Karma'' translates literally as action, work, or deed<ref>* {{Harvard reference
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|surname1=Apte
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|given1=Vaman S
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|year=1997
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|title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary
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|place= Delhi
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|edition=New Ed
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|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas
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|isbn=8120803000
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}}</ref> and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1991|p=64}}</ref> According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the ''jiva-atma'', develops ''[[sanskara]]s'' (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The ''linga sharira'', a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.<ref>{{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}</ref> Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to [[reincarnation]] as well as one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of [[free will]] and [[destiny]].
   
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This cycle of ''action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth'' is a continuum called ''[[samsara]]''. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The [[Bhagavad Gita]] states that:
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'' O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction'' (Gita: 9:23).
  
   
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{{Cquote|As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,
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==== Shaivism ====
  
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similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)<ref> Bhagavad Gita 2.22</ref>}}
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{{main|Shaivism}}
  
   
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''Samsara'' provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of ''samsara'' through ''moksha'' is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.<ref>See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20</ref><ref>See {{Harvard reference
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Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that [[Shiva]] (&#2358;&#2367;&#2357;) is the supreme being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either [[monistic]] or [[dvaita|dualistic]] philosophies.
  
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|last= Vivekananda
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|first=Swami
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|authorlink=Swami Vivekananda
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|year=2005
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|title=Jnana Yoga
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|place=
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|publisher= Kessinger Publishing
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|volume=
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|edition=
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|isbn=1-425482-88-0
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}} 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)</ref> It is thought that after several reincarnations, an ''atman'' eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
   
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The ultimate goal of life, referred to as ''moksha'', ''[[nirvana]]'' or ''[[Samādhi|samadhi]]'', is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from ''samsara'' and ends the cycle of rebirth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rinehart|2004|pp=19–21}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|pp=79–86}}</ref>
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==== Shaktism ====
  
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{{main|Shaktism}}
  
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Shaktas worship the Mother Goddess Shakti (or [[Devi]]) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of the masculine divinity. The "History of the Shakta Religion" explains that ''The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature.'' It is associated with [[Vedanta]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Tantra]] philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of [[Bhakti yoga]] associated with it.
  
   
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The exact conceptualization of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining ''moksha'' an ''atman'' no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of [[Dvaita]] (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining ''moksha'' expect to spend eternity in a ''[[loka]]'' (heaven),<ref> The Christian concepts of [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]] do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as [[Vaikunta]] (the abode of Vishnu) or ''loka'' are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. </ref> in the company of their chosen form of ''Ishvara''. Thus, it is said the followers of ''dvaita'' wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".<ref>{{Harvnb|Nikhilananda|1992}}</ref>
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==== Smārtism ====
  
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{{main|Smartism}}
  
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'''Smārtas''' invariably follow Advaita (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called Brahman. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal gods (deities) being different manifestations of Brahman which can be called by different names. Smārtism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The Smārta perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent '''Smārtins''' like Swami [[Vivekananda]].
  
   
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===Objectives of human life===
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== Hindu sacred texts ==
  
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{{main|Hindu scripture}}
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{{main|Purusharthas}}
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Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, known as the ''{{Unicode|puruṣārtha}}s'':
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The overwhelming majority of Hindu [[scripture|sacred texts]] are composed in the [[Sanskrit language]]. Indeed, much of the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures.
 
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''[[dharma]]'' "righteousness, ''[[ethikos]]''", ''[[artha]]'' "livelihood, wealth", ''[[Kama (Purusharthas)|{{IAST|kāma}}]]'' "sensual pleasure", ''[[mokṣa]]'' "liberation, freedom [from ''[[samsara]]'']".<ref>as discussed in ''[[Mahābhārata]]'' 12.161; Bilimoria et al. (eds.), ''Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges'' (2007), p. 103; see also {{Harvnb|Werner|1994}}, {{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=7}} </ref><ref>{{cite book |author= |title=The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (iRght Wealth), Kama (Rght Desire), Moksha (Right Exit (Liberation)) |publisher=Pustak Mahal |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=81-223-0945-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
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===Shruti===
  
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{{main|Shruti}}
  
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The [[Veda]]s (&#2357;&#2375;&#2342;, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as Shruti by Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the [[Brahman]] to the [[rishi]]s while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the [[Veda]]s, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of "Eternal Knowledge". The four [[Veda]]s (the [[Rig Veda|Rig]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|Sama]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s) are various ''shakhas'' or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Rig Veda contains mantras to ''invoke'' the devas for the fire-sacrifice rituals, the Sama Veda has chants to be ''sung'' there, the Yajur Veda has actual prosaic ''instructions'' for the sacrifices and the Atharva Veda comprises of ''semi-magical (sic) spells'' against enemies, sorcerors, diseases and mistakes during the sacrificing ritual. The Vedas, apart from the hymn ([[mantra]]) or the '''Samhitā''' (&#2360;&#2306;&#2361;&#2367;&#2340;&#2366;) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are the '''Brāhmaņas''' (&#2348;&#2381;&#2352;&#2366;&#2361;&#2381;&#2350;&#2339;, not to be confused with Brahman) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the [[Aranyaka|Āranyakas]] (&#2310;&#2352;&#2339;&#2381;&#2351;&#2325;) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the [[Upanishad|Upanişhads]] (&#2313;&#2346;&#2344;&#2367;&#2359;&#2342;&#2381;) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul ([[Atman]]) and the [[Brahman]]. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals associated with them, like the [[Dharmashastra]]s, [[Grihyasutra]]s, etc but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or Vedic literature.
  
   
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===Yoga===
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The Upanishads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] to [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]] streams, was moulded around the [[Upanishads]]. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vrtti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauna vrtti) as secondary: ''saksad upadesas tu srutih'' - "The instructions of the sruti-sastra should be accepted literally, without so-called ''fanciful or allegorical interpretations''." (Jiva Gosvami, Krsna Sandarbha 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation.
 
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{{main|Yoga}}
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In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the [[Yoga Sutras]], the [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]], and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (''moksha'', ''samadhi'' or ''[[nirvana]]'') include:
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* [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the path of love and devotion)
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* [[Karma Yoga]] (the path of right action)
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* [[Rāja Yoga]] (the path of meditation)
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* [[Jñāna Yoga]] (the path of wisdom)<ref name=bhaskaressentgeneral>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref>
   
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An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the ''[[Kali Yuga]]'' (one of four epochs part of the [[Yuga]] cycle).<ref>For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." ({{Harvnb|Bhaktivedanta|1997|loc=ch. [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/11/54/en1 11.54]}})</ref> Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of ''jnana yoga'', is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of ''bhakti yoga''), and vice versa.<ref>"One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." ({{Harvnb|Bhaktivedanta|1997|loc=ch. [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/5/5/en1 5.5]}})</ref> Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in ''raja yoga'') must embody the core principles of ''karma yoga'', ''jnana yoga'' and ''bhakti yoga'', whether directly or indirectly.<ref name=bhaskaressentgeneral/><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|p=116}}</ref>
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[[Image:Mindsenses.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Bhagavad Gita'' describes the mind as turbulent and obstinate. 'The Chariot of the Body': The five horses represent the five senses (tongue, eyes, nose, ears and skin). The rein symbolises the mind, the driver is the intelligence while the passenger is the spirit soul.]]
  
   
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===Bhagavad Gita===
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==Practices==
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[[Image:Ganesh utsav.jpg|thumb|right|A large [[Ganesha]] murti from a [[Ganesh Chaturthi]] festival in [[Mumbai]]]]
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{{main|Bhagavad Gita}}
  
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{{main|Puja|Yajna|Murti|Mandir|Hindu iconography|Japa|Mantra}}
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The Bhagavad Gita (&#2349;&#2366;&#2327;&#2357;&#2342;&#2381; &#2327;&#2368;&#2340;&#2366;), often referred to as the Gita, is one of the more popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is a summary of the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]], [[Yoga|Yogic]], [[Vedantic]] and [[Tantric Buddhism|Tantric]] branches of [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]]. The ''Bhagavad Gita'', meaning "The Divine Song", refers to itself as a 'Yoga [[Upanishad]]' and is sometimes called ''G&#299;topani&#351;ad''. It expounds on [[Karma Yoga]], [[Bhakti Yoga]] and [[Jnana Yoga]]. It is an integral part of the epic [[Mahabharata]].
  
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Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in {{IAST|pūjā}} (worship or veneration),<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict.">{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams| 2001}}</ref> either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,<ref>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=157}}</ref> and many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=137}}</ref> The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The [[Padma Purana]] states that the ''{{IAST|mūrti}}'' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.<ref>''{{IAST|arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ}}.''</ref> A few Hindu sects, such as the [[Arya Samaj|{{IAST|Ārya Samāj}}]], do not believe in worshiping God through icons.
   
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Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable ''[[Om]]'' (which represents the ''Parabrahman'') and the [[Swastika#Hinduism|Swastika]] sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as ''[[tilaka]]'' identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, ''[[chakra]]'' and ''[[veena]]'', with particular deities.
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While technically, it is considered as ''[[Smriti]]'' text, it has singularly achieved the status of ''[[Shruti]]'', or ''Revealed Knowledge''. The Bhagavad Gita is described as the essence of the Vedas. The Gita is easy to follow, and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the [[Vedas]], which are more esoteric and intricate, the Gita is read by many practicing Hindus.
  
   
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Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the ''[[Gayatri Mantra]]'' or ''[[Mahamrityunjaya]]'' mantras. {{Fact|date=December 2007}} The epic [[Mahabharata]] extols ''Japa'' (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the [[Kali Yuga]] (what Hindus believe to be the current age). {{Fact|date=December 2007}} Many adopt ''Japa'' as their primary spiritual practice. {{Fact|date=December 2007}}
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===Smriti===
  
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{{main|Smriti}}
  
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The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the '''Smritis''' (lit., "memory"), all of which laud the Vedas; the most notable of them are the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', major [[epic poetry|epic]]s considered sacred by all followers of Sanatana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Shrimad Bhagavatam, described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to Vishnu as the highest goal, [[Devi Mahatmya]], an ode to [[Devi]], and the [[Yoga Sutras]], a key meditative yoga text of Shri [[Patanjali]]. There are also a number of revered Hindu [[Tantras]], the [[Manusmriti]], the 18 [[Purana|Purāņa]]s which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and [[List of sutras|Sutras]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the [[Mahanirvana Tantra]], [[Tirumantiram]] and [[Shiva Sutras]]. The eighteen '''Purāņas''', or ''Ancients'', are divided into three groups of six. The Purāņas' groups and their contents are: 1) the Brahmā Purāņas: Brahma Purāņa, Brahmanda Purāņa, Brahma Vaivarta Purāņa, Markandeya Purāņa, Bhavishya Purāņa, and the Vamana Purāņa; 2) the Vishnu Purāņas: the Vishnu Purāņa, the Bhagavata Purāņa, the Naradeya Purāņa, the Garuda Purāņa, the Padma Purāņa, and the Varaha Purāņa; and 3) the Shiva Purāņas: the Vayu Purāņa, the Linga Purāņa, the Skanda Purāņa, the Agni Purāņa, the Matsya Purāņa, and the Karma Purāņa. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and many Purāņas are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. It is interesting to note that the Hindus attach much more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings conveyed by these texts, rather than only the literal mythology. Other important scriptures are the sectarian [[Hindu Agamas]] which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] and [[Devi]]. The Shrutis take precedence over Smriti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavas regard the Purāņas to be as authoritative as the Vedas.
  
   
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===Rituals===
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== Origins and society ==
  
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[[Image:Diwali Diya.jpg|thumb|[[Diwali]], the festival of lights, is a prime festival of Hinduism. Shown here are traditional [[Diya]]s that are often lit during Diwali]]
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The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis,<ref name=religiouslife>{{cite web
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|url = http://www.religionsofindia.org/loc/india_religious_life.html
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|title = Religious Life
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|accessdate = 2007-04-19
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|work = Religions of India
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|publisher = Global Peace Works
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}}</ref> Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.<ref name=locceremonies>{{cite web
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|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0055)
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|title = Domestic Worship
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|accessdate = 2007-04-19
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|date=September 1995
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|work = Country Studies
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|publisher = The Library of Congress
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}}</ref> but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing [[bhajan|devotional hymns]], [[meditation]], chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.<ref name=locceremonies/> A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.<ref name=locceremonies/> Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.<ref name=locceremonies/> Vedic rites of fire-oblation (''[[yajna]]'') are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic [[mantra]]s are still the norm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm|title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref> The rituals, [[upachara]]s, change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred [[dance]] and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the [[Agama Shastra]], were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.
   
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[[Image:Hindu home temple.jpg|thumb|left|Hindu home shrine]]
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===Origins of Hinduism ===
  
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Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include ''[[Annaprashan]]'' (a baby's first intake of solid food), ''[[Upanayanam]]'' ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education.)and ''[[Shraadh]]'' (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased).<ref name=loclifecycle>{{cite web
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{{main|History of Hinduism}}
  
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|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0056)
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[[Image:Wheel of Konark, Orissa, India.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Sun Temple]] in [[Konark]], [[Orissa]] is one of the most famous stone [[monument]] in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God [[Surya]].]]
  
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|title = Life-Cycle Rituals
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Hinduism is one of the world's oldest major religions in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the [[Sanatana Dharma]] propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. The [[Purana]]s place Lord Krishna's birth at around 3100 BCE. Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord [[Rama]]'s, sometimes dated at over 5-6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the [[Treta Yuga]] according to the Ramayana Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord [[Rama]], the seventh incarnation of Lord [[Vishnu]]. Modern [[Indology]] dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and literary dating of the Rig Veda. This dating is rejected by some Hindus, who reject the validity of the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] hypothesis.
  
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|accessdate = 2007-04-19
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|date=September 1995
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|work = Country Studies: India
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|publisher = The Library of Congress
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}}</ref><ref name=shraddha>{{cite web
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|url = http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0516.htm | title = Shraddha
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|last=Banerjee |first=Suresh Chandra | accessdate = 2007-04-20 | work = [[Banglapedia]]
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|publisher = Asiatic Society of Bangladesh }}</ref> For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.<ref name=loclifecycle/> On death, [[cremation]] is considered obligatory for all except ''[[sanyasi]]s'', ''[[hijra (South Asia)|hijra]]'' and children under five.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a [[pyre]].
   
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===Pilgrimage and festivals===
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The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called [[Rishi]]s, over a long period of time. The Vedas are said to have been transmitted to Lord Brahma by Lord Vishnu via meditative trance at the beginning of each creation.
  
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{{Main|Hindu festivals}}
   
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[[Pilgrimage]] is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities, including [[Allahabad]], [[Haridwar]], [[Varanasi]], and [[Vrindavan]]. Notable temple cities include [[Puri]], which hosts a major [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] [[Jagannath]] temple and [[Rath Yatra]] celebration; [[Tirumala - Tirupati]], home to the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]]; and [[Katra, Jammu and Kashmir|Katra]], home to the [[Vaishno Devi]] temple. The four holy sites [[Puri]], [[Rameswaram]], [[Dwarka]], and [[Badrinath]] (or alternatively the [[Himalaya]]n towns of [[Badrinath]], [[Kedarnath]], [[Gangotri]], and [[Yamunotri]]) compose the ''[[Char Dham]]'' (''four abodes'') pilgrimage circuit. The ''[[Kumbh Mela]]'' (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, [[Nashik]], and [[Ujjain]]. Another important set of pilgrimages are the ''[[Shakti Peethas]]'', where [[Shakti|the Mother Goddess]] is worshipped, the two principal ones being ''[[Kalighat]]'' and ''[[Kamakhya]]''.
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Hinduism, along with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], is regarded to be an ''[[Arya]] [[Dharma]]'', meaning, a noble religion.
  
   
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Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The [[Hindu calendar]] usually prescribe their dates. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are [[Maha Shivaratri]], [[Holi]], [[Ram Navami]], [[Krishna Janmastami]],[[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[Dussera]], [[Durga Puja]] and [[Diwali]].
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=== Etymology ===
  
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Though linguists and historians haven't reached a consensus, the term [[Hindu]] is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the [[Sindhu]] (&#2360;&#2367;&#2344;&#2381;&#2343;&#2369;, i.e., the [[Indus]]) river, which is known as '''Hindu''' in Persian. The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, [[Mohan-jo-Daro]] civilization is documented to be around five thousand years old. As evidenced by its structure, this was a very advanced civilization. Hinduism, in some form, probably existed long before that. In the [[Iranian_languages|Iranian]] linguistic branch, the /s/ of the [[Indic]] branch (as represented by Sanskrit) is cognate with the /h/ sound of Iranian (as represented by Avestan and Old Persian). In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as '''sapta sindhu''' (the land of seven rivers). This became the term '''Hapta-Hindu''' in [[Avesta]] (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18). Hindu (In-du or In-tu in [[China]]) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian or India. The [[Greek language|Greek]] term "India" was originally pronounced Hindia; /h/ became lost as in later Greek there was no character for "h". In modern Persian and Arabic, the term '''Hindustan''' denotes the Indian subcontinent, and '''Hind''' or '''Al-Hind''' is used to denote the Republic of India.
  
   
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==Scriptures==
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The word '''Hindu''' (&#2361;&#2367;&#2344;&#2381;&#2342;&#2369;), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India, is used in some early-medieval Sanskrit texts like BhaviŞhya Purāņa, Kālikā Purāņa, Merutantra, Rāmakosha, Hemantakavikosha and Adbhutarūpakosha. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called [[Hindustan]] or [[Hind]] in [[Hindi]], [[Persian_language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]]. Note that the word [[Hindustan]] also has other meanings.
  
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{{main|Śruti|Smriti}}
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[[Image:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Rig Veda]]'' is one of the oldest [[religious texts]]. This Rig Veda [[manuscript]] is in [[Devanagari]]]]
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Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times".<ref name=vivekI6>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987|pp=6–7}} Vol I</ref><ref name=vivekIII118>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987|pp=118–120}} Vol III </ref>
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The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sargeant|Chapple|1984|p=3}}</ref> Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.<ref name=nikhilupa3to8/> Most sacred texts are in [[Sanskrit]]. The texts are classified into two classes: ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti''.
   
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===Shruti===
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Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define [[Hinduism]] as a distinct religion, along the lines of [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]. Some scholars, such as [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], defined it as a religion based on the [[Vedas]], using the analogy of the [[Bible]] being the basis of Christianity and the [[Qur'an]] being the Muslim scripture.
  
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''Shruti'' (lit: that which is heard)<ref>See, for instance, [[René Guénon]] ''Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta'' (1925 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-62-4, chapter 1, "General remarks on the Vedanta, p.7.</ref> primarily refers to the ''Vedas'', which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the [[Vedas]] as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (''[[rishi|{{IAST|Ṛṣi}}]]s''),<ref name=vivekIII118/> some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.<ref>Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal.</ref><ref name=vivekI6/><ref>{{Harvard reference
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|last=Harshananda
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|first=Swami
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|year=1989
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|title=A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas, in "Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World"
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|place=Mylapore
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|publisher= Sri Ramakrishna Math
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|edition=2nd
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|isbn=81-7120-121-0
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}}</ref> Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vivekananda|1987|p=374}} Vol II</ref>
   
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There are four ''Vedas'' (called ''{{IAST|Ṛg-}}, Sāma- Yajus- ''and ''Atharva-''). The ''[[Rigveda]]'' is the first and most important Veda.<ref>Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] texts.</ref> Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the ''Veda proper'', being the ''[[Samhitapatha|{{IAST|Saṃhitā}}]]'', which contains sacred ''mantras''. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the ''{{IAST|Saṃhitā}}''. These are: the ''[[Brahmana|{{IAST|Brāhmaṇas}}]]'', ''[[Aranyaka|{{IAST|Āraṇyakas}}]]'', and the ''[[Upanishad]]s''. The first two parts were subsequently called the ''{{IAST|Karmakāṇḍa}}'' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''{{IAST|Jñānakāṇḍa}}'' (knowledge portion).<ref name="Shivananda">{{cite web|url=http://www.dlshq.org/religions/vedas.htm|title=Swami Shivananda's mission|accessdate=2007-06-25}}</ref> While the ''Vedas'' focus on rituals, the ''Upanishads'' focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss [[Brahman]] and [[reincarnation]].<ref name=nikhilupa3to8/><ref>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=166}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=25–41}}</ref>
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That even an [[atheism|atheist]] may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far more than a simple religious system; it is actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving [[philosophy|philosophies]] and ancient [[tradition]]s.
  
   
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===Vedic religion===
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===Smritis===
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[[Image:Naradiyamahapuranam.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Naradeya Purana]]'' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort [[Lakshmi]] resting on [[Shesha|Shesha Nag]]. [[Narada]] and [[Brahma]] are also pictured.]]
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{{main|Vedic religion}}
  
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Hindu texts other than the ''Shrutis'' are collectively called the ''Smritis'' (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]], which consist of the ''[[Mahabharata|{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana|{{IAST|Rāmāyaṇa}}]]''. The [[Bhagavad Gita|''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'']] is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from ''Krishna'', an incarnation of ''Vishnu'', told to the prince [[Arjuna]] on the eve of a great war. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'', spoken by [[Krishna]], is described as the essence of the ''Vedas.''<ref>''{{Unicode|Sarvopaniṣado}} gāvo,'' etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', ''cited in'' Introduction to [http://www.bhagavadgitaasitis.com/introduction/en Bhagavad-gītā As It Is].</ref> However Gita, sometimes called ''Gitopanishad'', is more often placed in the [[Shruti]], category, being Upanishadic in content.<ref>Thomas B. Coburn, ''Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life'', Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. '''3''' (Sep., 1984), pp. 435-459</ref> The Smritis also include the ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'', which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives. There are texts with a sectarian nature such as ''[[Devi Mahatmya|{{IAST|Devī Mahātmya}}]]'', the ''[[Tantras]]'', the ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'', ''[[Tirumantiram]]'', ''[[Shiva Sutras]]'' and the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Hindu {{Unicode|Āgamas}}]]''. A more controversial text, the ''[[Manusmriti]]'', is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of [[varna|the caste system]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}}
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Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the [[Vedas]]. The earliest of these, the [[Rigveda]] centers on worship of the deities [[Indra]] and [[Agni]], and on the [[Soma]] ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called [[yagna|yajña]] (&#2351;&#2332;&#2381;&#2334;) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The [[Ashvamedha]] was the most important sacrifice described in the [[Yajurveda]], possibly performed for the last time by [[Samudragupta]] in the [[4th century]]. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the [[Avesta]], as well as more distantly to other [[Indo-European languages]] and [[Indo-European religions|religions]] (see [[Indo-Aryan migration]]).
  
   
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==History==
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===Hindu nationalism===
  
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{{main|History of Hinduism}}
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{{main articles|[[Hindu Nationalism]], [[Hindutva]], and [[Hindu Rashtra]]}}
  
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[[Image:Kailash Tibet.jpg|thumb|right|Sacred [[Mount Kailash]] in [[Tibet]] is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.]]
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The earliest evidence for [[prehistoric religion]] in India date back to the late [[Neolithic]] in the [[early Harappan]] period (5500–2600 BCE).<ref name=nikhilupa3to8>{{Harvnb|Nikhilananda|1990|pp=3–8}}</ref><ref
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name=History>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml "Hindu History"] The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the [[Harappan civilization]] as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".</ref> The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "[[historical Vedic religion]]". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is the [[Rigveda]], dated to 1700–1100 BCE.<ref>T. Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. </ref> The Vedas center on worship of deities such as ''[[Indra]]'', ''[[Varuna]]'' and ''[[Agni]]'', and on the ''[[Soma]]'' ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called ''[[yagna|{{IAST|yajña}}]]'', and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build [[temple]]s or [[icon]]s. {{Fact|date=December 2007}} The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to [[Zoroastrianism]] and other [[Indo-European people|Indo-European]] religions.<ref>The ''[[Rigveda|{{IAST|Ṛgvedic}}]]'' deity ''Dyaus'', regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically [[cognate]] with [[Zeus]]—the king of the gods in [[Greek mythology]], [[Jupiter (mythology)|Iovis]] (''gen. of'' Jupiter) —the king of the gods in [[Roman mythology]], and [[Tiu/Ziu]] in [[Germanic paganism|Germanic mythology]][http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE117.html], cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] speaking peoples' mythologies; see [[Proto-Indo-European religion]].</ref>
   
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The major Sanskrit epics, ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'', were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about [[deva (Hinduism)|devas and devis]], their interactions with humans and their battles against [[rakshasa|demons]].
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In the 20th century, emerging Indian [[nationalism]] began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to [[Islam]], and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed [[Hindutva]] ("Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that "no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage." Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by [[Savarkar]] in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in [[Politics of India|Indian politics]] in the [[1980s]] and is chiefly associated with the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to build a temple to Rama at the site of the controversial [[Babri]] [[mosque]] (destroyed by some Hindutva activists in 1992) in [[Ayodhya]]. Many believe that Lord Rama was born at the site, and that a Vaishnavite temple was constructed there to commemorate the birthplace. Some historians and Hindutva activists claim that the [[Mughal]] commander [[Mir Baki]] destroyed the temple and built the Babri mosque, in his alleged frenzy of [[iconoclasm]]. However, the destruction of the temple is also attributed to the [[Mughal]] Emperor [[Aurangzeb]].
  
   
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Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu thought: the advent and spread of Upanishadic, [[Jainism|Jaina]], and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] philosophico-religious thought throughout the broader Indian landmass.<ref> Olivelle, Patrick, ''"The renouncer tradition"'', in {{Harvnb|Flood|2003|pp= 273–274}}</ref> The Upanishads, [[Mahavira]] (24th [[Tirthankar]] of Jains) and [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] (founder of [[Buddhism]]) taught that to achieve ''moksha'' or ''nirvana'', one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system. Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Eliot|2003}}</ref> Buddhism peaked during the reign of [[Asoka the Great]] of the [[Mauryan Empire]], who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in [[Indian philosophy]], including [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Purva-Mimamsa]] and [[Vedanta]].<ref name="Radhaxviii-xxi">{{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=xviii–xxi}}.</ref> [[Charvaka]], the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in [[North India]] in the sixth century BCE.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9">{{Harvnb|Basham|1999}}</ref> Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism.<ref name="BBC ethics2">{{cite web |title=The rise of Jainism and Buddhism |work=Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences |publisher=BBC |date=26 July 2004 |accessdate=2007-04-21 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml }}</ref>
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===Temples===
  
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{{main|Mandir}}
  
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[[Image:Temple4.jpg|thumb|295px|left|The world's first [http://www.swaminarayan.info/mandirs/kalupur/ Swaminarayan Temple]was built in [[Ahmedabad]] by the instructions of [[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]].]]
  
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[[Image:Gopuram-madurai.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Most of the Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here, is the [[Meenakshi temple]] in southern India.]]
  
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Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some ''mandirs'' are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the [[agama|āgama shāstras]] and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four '''Shankarāchāryas''' (the abbots of the monasteries of [[Jyotirmath|Joshimath]], [[Govardhana_matha|Puri]], [[Sringeri_Sharada_Peetham|Sringeri]] and [[Dwaraka_P%C4%ABtha|Dwarka]] — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at [[Kanchi matha|Kanchi]] is also added) are viewed as the four highest [[Patriarch]]s of the Hindudom.
  
   
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Sanskritic culture goes into decline after the end of the [[Gupta period]]. The early medieval [[Purana]]s helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing [[acculturation]]. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the [[Dharmashastras]] underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.<ref>Vijay Nath, ''From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition'', Social Scientist 2001, pp. 19-50.</ref>
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Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), [[puja|pūjā]], [[meditation]], and religious congregation (though not so regular and often as among the Muslims and the Christians) among other religious activities. [[Puja|Pūjā]] or worship, frequently uses the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|mūrti]]'' (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan|kīrtan]] (devotional songs), and [[arti|ārtī]] are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. This form of icon and temple worship, [[puja|pūjā]], is integral to the [[Bhakti]] cult.
  
   
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[[Image:New Delhi Temple.jpg|thumb|left|[[Akshardham (Delhi)|Akshardham Temple]] in [[Delhi]].]]
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Most Hindu homes also have a specific area devoted to daily worship of the deities with religious icons and meditation.
  
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Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to [[Islam]]. Numerous Muslim rulers such as [[Aurangzeb]] destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims; however some, such as [[Akbar]], were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers [[Ramanuja]], [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], and [[Chaitanya]].<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> Followers of the [[Bhakti movement]] moved away from the abstract concept of [[Brahman]], which the philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible [[avatar]]s, especially Krishna and Rama.<ref name="JordensISBN 0-19-563921-9">J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in {{Harvnb||Basham|1999}}</ref>
   
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[[Indology]] as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as [[Max Müller]] and [[John Woodroffe]]. They brought [[Vedas|Vedic]], [[Puranic]] and [[Tantra|Tantric]] literature and philosophy to Europe and the [[United States]]. At the same time, societies such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] and the [[Theosophical Society]] attempted to reconcile and fuse [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]] and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with [[Shri Ramakrishna]] and [[Ramana Maharshi]]. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including [[Sri Aurobindo]] and [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|Swami Prabhupada]] (founder of [[ISKCON]]), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], [[B.K.S. Iyengar]] and [[Swami Rama]] have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and [[Vedanta]] in the West. Today modern movements, such as [[ISKON]] and the [[Swaminarayan Faith]], attract a large amount of followers across the world. <ref name="isbn0754638561">{{cite book |author=Raymond Brady Williams |title=Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd.|location= |year=2004 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nkVBOfE1KkAC&dq=swaminarayan+hare+krishna&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 |isbn=0754638561 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}p.217</ref>
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===Current geographic distribution===
  
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{{main|Hinduism by country}}
  
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[[Image:Neasden_Temple_-_Shree_Swaminarayan_Hindu_Mandir_-_Gate.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Hinduism continues to grow, as is evidenced by the modern [[Neasden Temple]] in [[London]].]]
  
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[[Image:Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million people from around the world participated in [[Kumbh Mela]] at one of the Hindu Holy city [[Prayaga]] (also known as Allahabad) ([[India]]).]]
  
   
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==Society==
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Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in [[India]]. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in [[Bali]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Fiji]], [[Guyana]], [[Nepal]], [[Mauritius]], [[Suriname]], [[Singapore]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. In [[Nepal]] and [[Bali]], Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in [[Sri Lanka]] (3 million), [[Pakistan]] (2.5 million), [[Malaysia]] (1.5 million), [[United States]] (1.5 million), [[South Africa]] (1.1 million) the [[Middle East]] (1 million) and the [[United Kingdom]] (1 million).
  
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===Denominations===
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{{main|Hindu denominations}}
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[[Image:Temple de Mînâkshî01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A view of [[Meenakshi Temple]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
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Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.<ref>{{Harvnb|Werner|1994|p=73}}</ref> However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smartism]]. The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.
   
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[[Vaishnavas]] worship ''[[Vishnu]]'' as the supreme God; [[Shaivites]] worship ''[[Shiva]]'' as the supreme; [[Shaktas]] worship ''[[Shakti]]'' (power) personified through a female divinity or [[Mother Goddess]], ''[[Devi]]''; while [[Smartists]] believe in the essential oneness of five or six deities [[panchadeva]] or [[Shanmata]] (i.e., [[Tamil people|Tamil]] Hindus add [[Skanda]] <ref> http://www.mailerindia.com/god/hindu/index.php?skanda</ref>) as personifications of the Supreme.
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==Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought==
  
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{{main|Hindu philosophy}}
  
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The six ''Āstika'' or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are [[Nyaya|Nyāya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Purva Mimamsa|Pūrva Mīmāmsā]] (also called just 'Mīmāmsā'), and [[Vedanta|Uttara Mīmāmsā]] (also called '[[Vedanta]]'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nāstika, or heterodox, and refer to [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Lokayata]]. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are [[Purva Mimamsa]], [[Yoga]], and [[Vedanta]]. See [[Hindu philosophy]] for a discussion of the historical significance of [[Samkhya]], [[Nyaya]], and [[Vaisheshika]].
  
   
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The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who may not understand or follow [[Advaita]] philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to [[Advaita Vedanta]] as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.
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===Pūrva Mīmāmsā===
  
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<ref>[http://hinduism.iskcon.com/tradition/1204.htm Heart of Hinduism: The Smarta Tradition<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
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{{main|Purva Mimamsa}}
  
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The main objective of Pūrva ("earlier") [[Mimamsa|Mīmāmsā]] school (also simply called '''Mīmāmsā''') was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals.
  
   
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Other denominations like [[Ganapatya]] (the cult of ''[[Ganesha]]'') and [[Saura (Hinduism)|Saura]] ([[Surya|Sun]] worship) are not so widespread.
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===Yoga===
  
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{{main|Yoga}}
  
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[[Image:Indus 03.jpg|thumb|200px|right|In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be the ultimate way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the [[Rig Veda]], which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE. Some historians believe that this 5000 thousand years old sculpture is of a yogi.]]
  
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Yoga means ''union'' and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goals are [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit ([[Purusha]]) and the nature ([[Prakriti]]), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God ([[Ishvara]]).
  
   
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There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami [[Dayananda Saraswati]]'s ''[[Arya Samaj]]'', which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire sacrifices (''[[yajna|{{IAST|yajña}}]]'').
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[[Upanishads]], sage [[Patanjali]]'s [[Yoga Sutra]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita]] are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on [[Raja Yoga]], [[Bhakti Yoga]], [[Karma Yoga]] and [[Gyana Yoga]]. Of these, the [[Yoga Sutra]] is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.
  
   
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The [[Tantra|Tantric traditions]] have various sects, as Banerji observes:
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===Uttara Mimāmsā: Vedānta and its three main schools===
  
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{{cquote|Tantras are&nbsp;... also divided as ''[[Astika|āstika]]'' or Vedic and ''[[nastika|nāstika]]'' or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the ''āstika'' works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).<ref>{{Harvnb|Banerji|1992|p=2}}</ref> }}
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{{main|Vedanta}}
  
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The Uttara ("later") Mimāmsā school, also called as [[Vedānta|Vedanta]], is perhaps the central pillar of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentaries by [[Badarayana|Bādarāyaņa]] — the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedānta thought, according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three principal (and three other) groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on unity of the whole God.
  
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The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, [[Advaita]] and the schools such as those of [[Ramanuja]] and [[Madhva]], focused on the true nature of [[Brahman]], on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature. The world famous sect of [[ISKCON]], worshipping [[Krishna]], follows the Vedantic philosophy of '''Acintya Bhedābheda''' by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]].
  
   
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As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. {{Fact|date=December 2007}} [[Heresy]] is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/28038/page1_3.html |title=India and Hinduism |accessdate=2007-07-17 |work= Religion of World|publisher=ThinkQuest Library }}</ref>
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====Pure monism: [[Advaita Vedanta]]====
  
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{{main|Advaita}}
  
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''Advaita'' literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes oneness of all Divine. Its proponent was [[Adi_Sankara]] ([[788]]?-[[820]]?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By the analysis of Vedas, he proposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical. Reality is categorised into three levels: '''Transcendental''', '''Pragmatic''' and '''Apparent'''. As compared to the Brahman which is the Supreme Reality, everything else, including the universe, the individuals and even Ishvara are not true. The universe, the individuals and Ishvara are true only in the Pragmatic level.
  
   
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===Ashramas===
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To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Reality is best expressed as [[Nirguna Brahman]], or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God ([[Ishvara]]) such as [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] or the Mother Goddess are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, [[Saguna Brahman]]. In fact, when a being tries to know the '''Supreme Spirit''' (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the '''Supreme Lord''' (Ishvara), under the effect of an illusioanry power of Brahman called [[Maya_(Hinduism)|Māyā]]. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of Māyā. True knowledge of the Brahman ('''Jñāna''') is the only way to liberation; however, good Karma and Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Sankara had also condemned the caste system.
  
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{{main|Ashrama}}
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Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four ''{{Unicode|Āshrama}}s'' (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). The first part of one's life, ''[[Brahmacharya]],'' the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a [[Guru]], building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. ''[[Grihastha]]'' is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies ''[[Kama (Purusharthas)|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'' and ''artha'' in one's married and professional life respectively (see the [[Hinduism#The goals of life|goals of life]]). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]],'' the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in ''[[Sannyasa|{{Unicode|Sannyāsa}}]]'', the stage of [[asceticism]], one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for [[Moksha]].<ref>S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in {{Harvnb|Rinehart|2004|pp=165–168}}</ref>
   
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===Monasticism===
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====Qualified monism: [[Vishistadvaita]] [[Bhakti]]====
  
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{{main|Vishistadvaita}}
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{{main|Sannyasa}}
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Some Hindus choose to live a [[monastic]] life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of [[moksha|liberation]] or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, [[celibacy]], detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential112>{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=112}}</ref> A Hindu monk is called a ''sanyāsī, [[sadhu|sādhu]]'', or ''[[swami|swāmi]]''. A female renunciate is called a ''sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=316}}</ref> It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential112/>
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[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman '''Nārāyaņa''' as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: '''Ishvara''' ([[Vishnu]]), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Rāmānuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. [[Karma]] along with [[Bhakti]] for is the true path for liberation.
  
   
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===Varnas===
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====Dualism: [[Dvaita]] [[Bhakti]] ====
  
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{{main|Dvaita}}
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{{main|Varna in Hinduism}}
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Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called ''Varnas'' (''Sanskrit'': "colour, form, appearance");<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>
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Like Ramanuja, [[Shri Madhvacharya|Madhva]] ([[1238]] - [[1317]]) identified [[God]] with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. [[Bhakti]] is the only way for liberation.
  
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* the ''[[Brahmin]]s'': teachers and priests;
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* the ''[[Kshatriya]]s'': warriors, nobles, and kings;
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* the ''[[Vaishya]]s'': farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
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* the ''[[Shudra]]s'': servants and labourers.
   
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Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Michaels|2004|pp=188–197}}</ref> Although the scriptures, since the Rigveda ([[Mandala 10|10]].90), contain passages that clearly sanction the ''Varna'' system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion. Both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the ''Vedas,'' strongly sustain the division of society into four classes (varna) but place little emphasis on the caste system, showing that each individual should find his strengths through different ways such as his astrological signs, actions, personality, and appearance, and do his job for the good of that individual as well as society. Being casted into a class because of what parents he was born from was a political problem and not from the actual science of the religion. A verse from the [[Rig Veda]] indicates that a person's occupation was not necessarily determined by that of his family:
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==Alternative cultures of worship==
  
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{{cquote|"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda [[Mandala 9|9]].112.3)<ref>Later scriptures however, such as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gītā]]'' ([http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/4/en1 4.13]) state that the four ''{{IAST|varṇa}}'' divisions are created by God, and the ''[[Manusmriti|{{Unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'' categorizes the different castes.[http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf Manu Smriti Laws of Manu] 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the ''Gītā'' says that one's ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage ''[[Vishwamitra|{{IAST|Vishvāmitra}}]]'' was a king of the ''[[Kshatriya|{{Unicode|Kṣhatriya}}]]'' caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, ''[[Valmiki|{{Unicode|Vālmiki}}]]'', once a low-caste robber, ''became'' a sage. ''[[Veda Vyasa|{{IAST|Veda Vyāsa}}]]''.
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</ref>}}
   
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In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the ''Shudras'' listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.<ref>White Yajurveda 26.2</ref> Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists.<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{Harvnb|Silverberg|1969|pp=442–443}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Smelser|Lipset|2005}}</ref>
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===The Bhakti schools===
  
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{{main|Bhakti}}
  
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[[Image:Ganesha2.jpg|thumb|right| [[Ganesh|Shri Ganesh]] is the son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]. He is widely worshipped as [[Vignesh]], the remover of obstacles.]]
  
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The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization.
 
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Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the devotion of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.
 
   
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Many social reformers, including [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[B. R. Ambedkar]], criticized caste discrimination.<ref>Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India", in {{Harvnb|Rinehart|2004}}</ref> The religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]] (1836-1886) taught that
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Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.
  
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{{cquote|"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through [[bhakti]] (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."<ref>{{Harvnb|Nikhilananda|1992|p=155}}</ref>
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}}
   
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===Ahimsa and vegetarianism===
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===Tantra===
  
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{{main|Ahimsa|Sacred cow|Vegetarianism and religion}}
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{{main|Tantra}}
  
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Hindus advocate the practice of ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.<ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' (New Delhi, 1974 edition)</ref> The term ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' appears in the [[Upanishad]]s,<ref name= "Radhakrishnan">{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S |authorlink=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume 1|edition=2nd edition |series=Muirhead library of philosophy |date= |year=1929 |publisher= George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |location=London|pages=148}}</ref> the epic Mahabharata<ref>For ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the {{IAST|Mahābhārata}} see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125.</ref> and ''{{IAST|Ahiṃsā}}'' is the first of the five ''Yamas'' (vows of self-restraint) in [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Patanjali's Yoga Sutras]].<ref>For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ''{{IAST|yama}}'' as "vow of self-restraint", see: {{cite book |series= |last=[[I. K. Taimni|Taimni]] |first=I. K. |authorlink= |coauthors=|title=The Science of Yoga |year=1961 |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |location=Adyar, India |isbn=81-7059-212-7 }}, p. 206.</ref>
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This is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism — best misunderstood (sic) by the Westerners as free sex associated with religion. A tantra literally means an act. A mantra is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A mantra is associated with an Yantra ,which is a mystical diagram. All acts of worship which include Mantras,Yantras are called Tantras.
  
   
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In accordance with ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'', many Hindus embrace [[vegetarianism]] to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement,{{Fact|date=November 2007}} it is recommended for a ''[[sattva|satvic]]'' (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of [[lacto vegetarian]]s in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.<ref name = "veg"> Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: [http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6170E/x6170e09.htm#TopOfPage "Diary and poultry sector growth in India"], [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf "Indian consumer patterns"] and [http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/February04/Features/ElephantJogs.htm "Agri reform in India"]. Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. </ref> The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.<ref>{{Harvard reference
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Tantras can be divided into two paths - The right hand path (also known as samayachara or Dakshinachara) and the Left hand path (Vamachara).
  
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|first=Michael Allen
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|year=1999
  +
|title=Deep Vegetarianism
  +
|place=
  +
|publisher= Temple University Press
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=1-566397-05-7
  +
}}</ref><ref name=Food_habits_of_a_nation>{{cite news | author = Yadav, Y.| coauthors= Kumar, S|title = The food habits of a nation| url = http://www.thehindu.com/2006/08/14/stories/2006081403771200.htm | work = The Hindu | date = August 14, 2006|accessdate = 2006-11-17 }}</ref> Some Hindus avoid [[onion]] and [[garlic]], which are regarded as ''[[rajas]]ic'' foods.<ref> See, Basak, R., "''The Hindu concept of the natural world''" in {{Harvnb|Morgan|1987|pp=111-112}}; see also {{Harvard reference
  +
|last=Doshi
  +
|first=Malvi
  +
|year=2002
  +
|title=Cooking Along the Ganges: The Vegetarian Heritage of India
  +
|place=
  +
|publisher= Writer's Showcase Press
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=059524422X
  +
}} p. 2.</ref> Some avoid meat on specific holy days.
   
  +
Observant [[Hindus]] who do eat meat almost always abstain from [[beef]]. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for [[protein]]-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.<ref name=beef_without_borders>{{cite news | first = R. | last = Krishnakumar | title = Beef without borders | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2018/stories/20030912004703100.htm | work = Frontline | publisher = Narasimhan Ram|date = August 30-September 12, 2003 | accessdate = 2006-10-07 }}</ref>
−
Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus.
 
   
  +
===Conversion===
−
:''For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given'', said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism.
  
  +
{{seealso|List of converts to Hinduism}}
  +
Concepts of conversion, evangelization, and proselyzation are absent from Hindu literature and in practice have never played a significant role, though acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. Early in its history, in the absence of other competing religions,{{Clarifyme|date=September 2008}} Hindus considered everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone they met to be Hindus.<ref>{{cite book |title=Towards a Transcultural Future: Literature and society in a post-colonial world |last=Geoffray |first=Davis |coauthors=Peter Marsden, Benedicte Ledent, Marc Delrez |publisher=Rodopi |year=2005 |pages=106 |isbn=9042017368 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_0QNztm0EHYC&pg=PA106&lr=&sig=odCSau50iKmPQAAYDT22N4YGsVs}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The History of Caste in India |first=Shridhar |last=Ketkar |publisher=Taylor & Carpenter |year=1909 |pages=87–89 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_c9OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA89&lr=#PPA89,M1}}</ref>
   
  +
The modern view of conversions into Hinduism is influenced by the demise of caste system combined with the persistence of age old ideas of Sanathan Dharm. Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas of acceptability of conversion. Hence, many Hindus continue to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had from birth, while many others continue to believe that anyone who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu, and many believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction to perceived and actual threat of evangelization, prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major religions many modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostasy and Proselytization |last=Omar |first=Rashid |publisher=Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame |year=2006 |month=8 |pages=3 | url=http://kroc.nd.edu/ocpapers/op_27_1.pdf}}</ref>
−
The word "[[tantra]]" also means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]].
  
   
  +
Hindus in Western countries generally accept and welcome willing converts, whereas in India acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. With the rise of Hindu Revivalist movements, reconversions into Hinduism have also picked up pace.<ref>{{cite book |title= Java's Hinduism Revivial|first=Thomas |last=Reuter|publisher=Hinduism Today | year=2004 |month=9| url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2004/10-12/52-53_revivial.shtml}}</ref> Reconversions are well accepted since conversion out of Hinduism is not recognized. Conversion into Hinduism through marriage is well accepted and often expected in order to enable the non-Hindu partner to fully participate in their spiritual, religious, and cultural roles within the larger Hindu family and society. {{Fact|date=February 2008}}
−
== Important themes and symbols in Hinduism==
  
−
[[Image:YoungBrahminBoy.jpg|thumb|175px|right|This young [[India]]n brahmachari bears on his forehead the distinctive triple-line [[tilaka]] (made out of ash, referred to as ''vibhuti'') and on his chest a [[rudraksha]] (eye of [[Rudra]]) and [[mala]] (rosary), both symbols of Lord [[Shiva]] ]]
  
−
=== Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows) ===
  
−
{{main|Tilaka}}
  
−
The ''tilaka'' (or ''tilak'') is a tattoo worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic ''third eye''. Although traditionally adorned, in one form or the other, by Brahmins (to denote the priestly class in Hindu society) and married women (to denote marriage and auspiciousness), in the modern context, it is most commonly seen as a decorative dot (or ''Bindi'') worn by women on the forehead.
  
   
  +
There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called ''dīkshā'' ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life after conversion and a ritual called ''suddhi'' ("purification") marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion. Most Hindu sects do not seek converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> However, some Hindu sects and affiliates such as Vedanta Society, Arya Samaj, International Society for Krishna Consciousness, and the Self-Realization Fellowship accept those who have a desire to follow Hinduism.
−
Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic deity [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''Tīkā'' ([[tilaka]]) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three horizontal lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).
  
   
  +
In general, Hindu view of religious freedom is not based on the freedom to proselytize, but the right to retain one’s religion and not be subject to proselyzation. Hindu leaders are advocating for changing the existing formulation of the freedom of religion clause in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since it favors religions which proselytize.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostasy and Proselytization |last=Omar |first=Rashid |publisher=Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame |year=2006 |month=8 |pages=4 | url=http://kroc.nd.edu/ocpapers/op_27_1.pdf}}</ref>
−
=== Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow ===
  
−
{{main articles|[[Ahimsa]], [[Sacred cow]], and [[Vegetarianism]]}}
  
−
Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ''ahimsa'' first appears in the [[Upanishad]]s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'', or eternal vows/restraints in [[Raja Yoga]].
 
   
  +
==See also==
−
A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], states like Gujarat, which has had significant [[Jain]] influence, and in many [[Brahmin]] and [[Marwari]] enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even [[onion]] and [[garlic]], as they are regarded as [[rajasic]].
  
  +
{{portal|Hinduism|Aum red.svg}}
  +
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Hinduism </span>'''
  +
{{Col-begin|width=}}
  +
{{Col-1-of-4}}
  +
* [[Hindu]]
  +
* [[World Hinduism]]
  +
* [[Hinduism by country]]
   
  +
{{Col-2-of-4}}
−
Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from [[beef]]. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term ''gau mata'', or ''Cow Mother''). While most Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many [[veneration|venerate]] her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. It is believed that [[Krishna]] is both [[Govinda]] (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi Bull|Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the [[Sacred cow|sacred nature of the cow]], most of the Hindu holy cities have a ban on selling beef — and a legal ban exists on cow-slaughter in almost all states of India.
  
  +
* [[Hindu deities]]
  +
* [[List of Hindu temples]]
  +
* [[Hindu calendar]]
   
  +
{{Col-3-of-4}}
−
=== Hindu symbolism ===
  
  +
* [[Hindu denominations]]
−
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:
  
  +
* [[Hindu reform movements]]
  +
* [[Hindu mythology]]
   
  +
{{Col-4-of-4}}
−
[[Image:Om2.jpg|right|thumb|165px|[[Aum]] ([[Om]])]]
  
  +
* [[List of Hindus|List of notable Hindus]]
−
[[Image:Hindu_swastika.png|right|thumb|165px|[[Swastika]]]]
  
  +
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]
−
[[Image:Jain Cosmology0007small.JPG|right|thumb|165px|Diagram showing the two mystic syllables Om and Hrim]]
  
  +
* [[List of Hinduism-related articles|List of related articles]]
−
[[AUM|'''''Aum''''']] (or Om, '''&#2384;''') is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu [[mantra]]s and prayers. It contains a deep symbolic message of the divine primordial vibration of the Universe, representing all existence, encompassing all of nature into the ''One Ultimate Reality''. This symbol is commonly found on necklaces worn by Hindus.
  
   
  +
{{Col-end}}
−
'''[[Swastika]]''' ('''&#21328;''') is an [[Arya]], or ''noble and auspicious'' symbol. It stands for [[satya]], truth, and stability within the power of [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] or, alternatively, of [[Surya]], the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early [[Vedic civilization|Vedic culture]], and is still widespread in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of the recent association with [[Nazism]], which used a modified version of this symbol.
  
   
  +
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Related systems and religions </span>'''
−
The '''[[Mandala]]''' of the hexagram, somewhat resembling the [[Star of David]], is an archetypal symbol for the sacred union of opposite energies. Formed by the intertwining of the "fire" and "water" triangles (the male "blade" and the female "chalice") this symbol represents the masculine and feminine principles in perfect union. In [[India]] the symbol represents the "cosmic dance" of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. The Star symbol has been found on temples in India from almost 10,000 years ago. In addition to the balance between man and woman, the Star symbolizes the [[Nara-Narayana]], or perfect meditative balancing state achieved between Man and God, and if maintained, results in "[[Moksha]]", or "[[Nirvana]]", i.e., release from the bounds of the earthly world and its material trappings.
  
  +
{{Col-begin|width=}}
   
  +
{{Col-1-of-5}}
−
===Murtis (icons)===
  
  +
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
−
{{main|Murti}}
  
  +
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
−
[[Image:Nataraja.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The dancing posture of Lord [[Siva|Śiva]], known as the [[Nataraja]], is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art]]
  
  +
* [[Indian religions]]
−
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal source of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.
 
  +
* [[Hellenism and Hinduism]]
   
  +
{{Col-2-of-5}}
−
Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (''mūrti'') which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines).
 
  +
* [[Jainism]]
  +
* [[Taoism]]
  +
* [[Buddhism]]
  +
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
  +
* [[Hindu philosophy]]
   
  +
{{Col-3-of-5}}
−
In a [[Mandir|Hindu Temple]], the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. [[Veneration]] of such Mūrtis is done everyday in a [[Mandir|temple]]. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a [[Mandir|temple]] in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues.
  
  +
* [[Sikhism]]
  +
* [[Hinduism and Sikh Panth]]
  +
* [[Ayyavazhi]]
  +
* [[Ayyavazhi and Hinduism]]
  +
* [[Islam and Hinduism]]
   
  +
{{Col-4-of-5}}
−
Some of deities worshipped are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Swaminarayan]], [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Agni]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]]. Also, the [[Puranas]] list twenty-five avatara of [[Vishnu]] : [[Caturasana]], [[Narad]], [[Varaha]], [[Matsya]], [[Yajna]], [[Nara-Narayana]], [[Kapila]], [[Dattatreya]], [[Hayasirsa]], [[Hamsa]], [[Prsnigarbha]], [[Rsabha]], [[Prithu]], [[Narasimha]] , [[Kurma]], [[Dhanvantari]], [[Mohini]], [[Vamana]], [[Parasurama]], [[Raghavendra]], [[Vyasa]], [[Balarama]], [[Krishna]] and [[Kalki]].
  
  +
* [[Zoroastrianism]]
  +
* [[Confucianism]]
  +
* [[Hinduism and Confucianism]]
   
  +
{{Col-5-of-5}}
−
===Sanskrit===
  
  +
*[[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]]
−
{{main|Sanskrit}}
  
  +
*[[Proto-Indo-European religion]]
  +
{{Col-end}}
   
  +
==Notes==
−
[[Sanskrit]] is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of [[hymns]] and [[mantras]]. Its pre-classical form of [[Vedic]] Sanskrit, the liturgical language of the Vedic religion, is one of the earliest attested members of the [[Indo-European language]] family, its most archaic text being the [[Rigveda]].
  
  +
<!-- Please do not edit here, if you came here to provide citations please read WP:CITE for more info on how to do so. Thank you -->
  +
{{reflist|3}}
  +
see Indian supreme court judgement over Hindusim http://www.bjp.org/history/htv-jag.html
   
−
===Mantra===
 +
==References==
  +
<!-- ------------------------------------------------------------------------
−
{{main|Mantra}}
  
  +
Only references that are actually used and cited in the article should be
  +
placed here. Mainly list only books, and journals (not websites, newspapers).
  +
List in alphabetical order, by first author's last name.
  +
Try maintaining a standard formatting style and add ISBN numbers if possible.
  +
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cite_sources for further details.
  +
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -->
  +
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|year=1969
  +
|title=Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium
  +
|periodical=The American Journal of Sociology
  +
|volume=75
  +
|issue=3
  +
|pages=442–443
  +
}}
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|editor1-last=Smelser
  +
|editor1-first=N.
  +
|editor2-last=Lipset
  +
|editor2-first=S.
  +
|title=Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Development
  +
|publisher=Aldine Transaction
  +
|publication-year=2005
  +
|isbn=0202307999
  +
}}
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|last= Smith
  +
|first=Huston
  +
|authorlink=
  +
|year=1991
  +
|title=The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions
  +
|place=San Francisco
  +
|publisher= HarperSanFrancisco
  +
|volume=
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=0062507990
  +
}}
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|last= Vivekananda
  +
|first=Swami
  +
|authorlink=Swami Vivekananda
  +
|year=1987
  +
|title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
  +
|place=Calcutta
  +
|publisher= Advaita Ashrama
  +
|volume=
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=81-85301-75-1
  +
}}
  +
{{refend}}
   
  +
== Further reading ==
−
Reciting [[mantra]]s or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of ''mantra yoga'', as it is called, is done through ''japa'' (repetition, usually through a [[rosary]]). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hé Rām!"'.
  
  +
<!--only monographs dedicated to Hinduism in general should be listed here-->
−  
  +
*{{Harvard reference
−
The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]] of the [[Rig Veda]] 3.62.10 (see [[Sanskrit]] for pronunciation):
 
  +
|last=Bowes
−
:[[Devanagari]]: {{lang|hi|ॐ भूर्भुवस्वः । तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यम् । भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि । धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात् ॥}}
 
  +
|first=Pratima
−
:Transliteration ([[IAST]]): 'om bhūrbhuvasvaḥ | tat saviturvarēṇyam | bhargō dēvasya dhīmahi | dhiyō yō naḥ pracōdayāt ||
 
  +
|year=1976
−
:Pronunciation ([[IPA]]):'' OM bh&#363;r bhuvə svə&#7717;'' | ''tət səvitur vəre&#7751;yəm'' | ''bhərgo devəsya dh&#299;məhi'' | ''dhiyo yo nə&#7717; prəçodəy&alpha;t'' ||/
 
  +
|title=The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach
−
:Translation: "Om! May we attain that excellent glory of Savitar the God / so may He stimulate our prayers."
 
  +
|place=
−
 
  +
|publisher= Allied Pub
−
It is considered one of the most sacred of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]) while chanting this mantra.
  
  +
|edition=
−  
  +
|isbn=0710086687
−
== Criticism ==
  
  +
}}
−
Hinduism is criticized based on current or past regressive social customs such as [[Dowry]], [[Sati]] and [[Caste|casteism]].
 
  +
*{{Harvard reference
−  
  +
|last=Flood
−
Many Westerners maintain that Hinduism is polytheistic and promotes idol worship. The term, "Hinduism" is an amorphous concept. Only an Advaitan or a follower of [[Advaita]] philosophy, such as [[Smartas]] believe that multiple forms of God are equivalent. For example, a [[Vaishnavite]] considers [[Vishnu]] to be the supreme God and [[Saivites]] consider [[Siva]] respectively as the supreme God. The Hindu counter argument is that Hinduism, specifically Smarta or Advaitan Hinduism is not [[polytheistic]], though it may present an appearance of being so to external observers not familiar with its philosophy. [[monism|Monism]] or [[monistic theism|Monistic Theism]] is a more apt definition of the Hindu worldview. The existence of numerous ''human forms'' and ''idols'' of God is an implied principle in Hindu thought. Each ''human form'' or ''idol'' is associated with an important fable, and these representations help people remember and contemplate over them more easily.
  
  +
|first=Gavin (Ed)
−  
  +
|year=2003
−
Many believe that Hinduism is more tolerant of God as defined by other religions and does not subscribe to similar ideas of false god or idolatry since they believe that Hinduism is not fixated on one concept of God. Furthermore, some Westerners or followers of Abrahamic religions see the Hindu "gods and goddesses" and mythology as only sexuality and violence—which consequently makes the Hindu deities appear like immoral devils. Hindus strongly condemn such interpretations, most of which, according to them, is not only a shallow analysis of the Hindu religion but also willfull and gross misinterpretation of Hindu iconography and mythology, in order to demean Hinduism.
  
  +
|title=Blackwell companion to Hinduism
−  
  +
|place=
−
== References==
  
  +
|publisher= [[Blackwell Publishing]]
−  
  +
|edition=
−
# Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449183/002-9917697-1332867?v=glance&n=283155]
  
  +
|isbn=0-631-21535-2
−
# Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By''. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
  
  +
}}
−
# Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. ''The Upanishads''. Penguin Arkana.
  
  +
*{{Harvard reference
−
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
  
  +
|last= Klostermaier
−
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]
  
  +
|first=K
−
# {{note|re}} [http://www.iskcon.com/galleries/bg1983/1/index.htm# Bhagavad Gita]
  
  +
|year=1994
−  
  +
|authorlink = Klaus Klostermaier
−
==See also==
  
  +
|title=A Survey of Hinduism
−
{{Hindu scriptures}}
  
  +
|url=http://www.oneworld-publications.com/books/texts/hinduism-a-short-history-ch1.htm
−  
  +
|publisher= State University of New York Press;
−
===Hinduism===
  
  +
|edition= 3rd (2007)
−
* [[Contemporary Hindu movements]]
  
  +
|isbn=0791470822
−
* [[Hinduism by country]]
  
  +
}}
−
* [[Hindu calendar]]
  
  +
*{{Harvard reference
−
* [[Hindu deities]]
  
  +
|last= Lipner
−
* [[Hindu idealism]]
  
  +
|first=Julius
−
* [[Hindu temples]]
  
  +
|year=1998
−
* [[List of Hindu temples|List of famous Hindu temples]]
  
  +
|title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices
−
* [[List of Hindu denominations]]
  
  +
|place=
−
* [[List of Hindus]]
  
  +
|publisher= Routledge
−
* [[List of Hinduism-related articles]]
  
  +
|edition=
−
* [[Sanskrit]]
  
  +
|isbn=0415051819
−
* [[Vedic science]]
  
  +
|url=http://www.google.co.in/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=sindhu+hindu&as_brr=3
−
* [[Puja]]
  
  +
|accessdate= 2007-07-12
−
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
  
  +
}}
−
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]
  
  +
*{{Harvard reference
−
* [[History of evolution of saivism]]
  
  +
|last= Michaels
−  
  +
|first=A
−
===Related systems and religions===
  
  +
|year=2004
−
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
  
  +
|title=Hinduism: Past and Present
−
* [[Buddhism]]
  
  +
|place=
−
* [[Jainism]]
  
  +
|publisher= Princeton University Press
−
* [[Ayyavazhi]]
  
  +
|edition=5th
−
* [[Sikhism]]
  
  +
|isbn=0-691-08953-1
−
* [[Taoism]]
  
  +
}}
−
* [[Zoroastrianism]]
  
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|last= Monier-Williams
  +
|first=Monier
  +
|authorlink=Monier Monier-Williams
  +
|year=1974
  +
|title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus
  +
|place=
  +
|publisher= Adamant Media Corporation
  +
|edition=
  +
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311
  +
|accessdate=2007-07-08
  +
|series=Elibron Classics
  +
|isbn=1421265311
  +
}}
  +
* {{Harvard reference
  +
|editor1-last=Morgan
  +
|editor1-first=Kenneth W.
  +
|year=1987
  +
|title=The Religion of the Hindus
  +
|place= Delhi
  +
|edition=New Ed
  +
|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas
  +
|isbn=8120803876
  +
}}
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|last= Renou
  +
|first=Louis
  +
|authorlink=
  +
|year=1964
  +
|title=The Nature of Hinduism
  +
|place=
  +
|publisher= Walker
  +
|volume=
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=
  +
}}
  +
* {{Harvard reference
  +
|surname1=Rinehart
  +
|given1=R (Ed.)
  +
|year=2004
  +
|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice
  +
|publisher=ABC-Clio
  +
|isbn=1-57607-905-8
  +
}}
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|last= Weightman
  +
|first=Simon
  +
|year=1998
  +
|title=The new Penguin handbook of living religions
  +
|place=
  +
|editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.)
  +
|publisher= [[Penguin books]]
  +
|chapter= Hinduism
  +
|volume=
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=0-140-51480-5
  +
}}
  +
*{{Harvard reference
  +
|last= Werner
  +
|first=Karel
  +
|year=1994
  +
|title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism
  +
|place=Richmond, Surrey
  +
|editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.)
  +
|publisher= Curzon Press
  +
|chapter= Hinduism
  +
|volume=
  +
|edition=
  +
|isbn=0-7007-0279-2
  +
}}
   
 
==External links==
  
==External links==
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{{sisterlinks|Hinduism}}
  
 
<!--See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism#External_Links] for guidelines to adding links here. PLEASE DISCUSS IN TALK BEFORE ADDING NEW ONES-->
  
<!--See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism#External_Links] for guidelines to adding links here. PLEASE DISCUSS IN TALK BEFORE ADDING NEW ONES-->
  +
−
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit_hinduism.asp Atma Jyoti Ashram] Articles on aspects of Hindu spirituality.
  
  +
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2006-03-03|En-Hinduism_part_1.ogg|En-Hinduism_part_2.ogg|En-Hinduism_part_3.ogg|En-Hinduism_part_4.ogg}}
−
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism''] - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research.
  
−
* [http://www.Hinduism.co.za/ Hinduism.co.za]
 +
* [http://www.ochs.org.uk/ Resources for Scholars and Students]
−
*[http://www.telisphere.com/~starbird/mandala.html The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David]
  
−
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
  
−
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/index.shtml BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism]
  
 
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/faq.htm Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism]
  
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/faq.htm Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism]
−
* [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/ Heart of Hinduism] - Based on the widely used UK schools text.
 +
* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.pdf All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf)]
−
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
 +
* [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/ Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions]
−
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
 +
* [http://dharma.indviews.com/ Information on Hinduism or Santana dharma]
  +
* {{cite web
−
* [http://hinduwebsite.com/ Hinduism and Hinduism resources]
  
  +
|url=http://www.oneworld-publications.com/books/texts/hinduism-a-short-history-ch1.htm
−
* [http://www.iskcon.com/ International Society for Krishna Consciousness] - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism.
  
  +
|title=Hinduism: A Short History
−
* [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/hinduism/paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda]
  
  +
|publisher=www.oneworld-publications.com
−
* [http://news.hinduworld.com Sarve Samachar] - Hindu news
  
  +
|accessdate=2008-07-06
−
*[http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2004/4-6/37-52_ten_questions.shtml Ten common questions by outsiders and pertinent answers.]
  
  +
|author=Prof. Klaus K. Klostermaier
−
* [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
  
  +
}}
−
* [http://www.godrealized.com/Hinduism.html Hinduism articles Bhagavad Gita Sanatana Dharma]
  
−
* [http://www.rudrakshanepal.com/festivals.php Hindu Festivals]
  
   
  +
'''Audio'''
−
<!-- interwiki -->
  
  +
* [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/hinduism/paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda] - Presented at ''World Parliament of Religion'' in 1893 (Text + Audio Version)
  +
* [http://www.ochs.org.uk/publications/multimedia/mp3_downloads.html Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies] Lectures and seminars in MP3 audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students.
   
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Hinduism
Aumred
Psychology and Hinduism · Hindu
Hindu psychology ·
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Glossary ·
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HinduSwastika
Swastika

Hinduism is a religion[1] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma by its practitioners, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law."[2] Hindu beliefs vary widely, with concepts of God and/or gods ranging from pantheism, monotheism and polytheism, with Vishnu and Shiva being the most popular deities. Other notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma, as well as personal duty, or dharma.

Among its roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India, and as such Hinduism is often stated to be the "oldest religious tradition" or "oldest living major tradition."[3][4][5][6] It is formed of diverse traditions and types and has no single founder.[7] Hinduism is the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam, with approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India.[8] Other countries with large Hindu populations can be found across southern Asia.

Hinduism's vast body of scriptures is divided into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered"). These scriptures discuss theology, philosophy and mythology, and provide information on the practice of dharma (religious living). Among these texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Tantras, the Agama, the Purāṇas and the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise from the Mahābhārata, spoken by Krishna, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.[9]

Etymology

Further information: Names of India

Hindū is the Persian name of the Indus River, first encountered in the Old Persian word Hindu (həndu), corresponding to Vedic Sanskrit Sindhu, the Indus River.[10] The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta Həndu in the Avesta (Vendidad or Videvdad 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu".[11] In Islam the Arabic texts - al-Hind (the Hind) also refers to 'the land of the people of modern day India'.[12]

The Persian term (Middle Persian Hindūk, New Persian Hindū) entered India with the Delhi Sultanate and appears in South Indian and Kashmiri texts from at least 1323 CE,[13] and increasingly so during British rule. Since the end of the 18th century the word has been used as an umbrella term for most of the religious, spiritual, and philosophical traditions of the sub-continent, excluding the distinct religions of Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

The term Hindu was introduced to the English. It generally denotes the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.[14]

Typology

Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darshanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism. The vast majority of present day Hindus can be categorized under one of these four groups, although there are many other, partly overlapping, allegiances and denominations.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six more generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex object:[15]

  • Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level and spanning thorough to pre-historic times or at least prior to written Vedas.
  • Vedic Hinduism as still being practiced by traditionalist brahmins, for example shrautins.
  • Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita (Smartism), as based on philosophical approach of the Upanishads.
  • Yogic Hinduism, especially based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
  • "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on the notion of Karma, and societal norms such as Hindu marriage customs etc.
  • Bhakti or devotionalism, especially as in Vaishnavism.

Definitions

The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief and Hinduism's dogmatic openness makes it difficult to define it as a religion according to the traditional Western conceptions.[16] While Hinduism is a clear practical concept to the majority of adherents,[How to reference and link to summary or text] many expressed a problem arriving at a definition of the term, mainly because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated or covered by it.[17] While sometimes referred to as a religion, it is more often defined as a religious tradition,[1] it is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions and most diverse in religious traditions.[18][3][19][20] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions to it; some religious traditions regard certain particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on it co-exist; some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, sustenance, and destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized with the belief in reincarnation (samsara) determined by the law of karma, and that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death, however other religions of the region, such as Buddhism and Jainism, also believe in this, outside of the scope of Hinduism.[17] Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all the living, historical world religions.[21] Despite its complexity Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest, but also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into the prehistory.[22]

A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India and prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that it is not "just a faith", but in itself related to the union of reason and intuition, he explicitly suggests, that it can not be defined, but is only to be experienced.[23] Similarly some academics are suggesting that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than a well defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not as central but still within the category. Based on that Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.[24]

Hinduism as one of the world religions we know today had only occurred or perceived since the 19th century, when the term 'Hindu-ism' started being used by leaders of Hindu reform movements or revivalists,[2] and, often considered to be biased, Western orientalists or the "first Indologists". However it is clearly accepted that sources of Hinduism and the "streams" which feed in to it are very ancient, extending back to the Indus Valley civilization and earliest expressions of historical Vedic religion.[25] It is not an accepted view that Hinduism is the construction of Western orientalists to make sense of the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the Vedic traditions, however some many have suggested it is.[26][27][28]

Problem with the single definition or of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' is often associated to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say 'Hinduisms', does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen, not as an alternative to Hinduism but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism.[29][30] Some suggest that Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed". It is therefore a very different kind of religion in these respects to the monolithic tradition of Islam, while some suggest there are stronger affinities with the structure of Judaism.[17]

From the western point of view, the understanding of Hinduism was mediated by Western notions of what religion is and how it relates to more ancient forms of belief.[31] It is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for "religion".[17] Some academics[32] and many practitioners refer to Hinduism with a native definition, as 'Sanātana Dharma', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law" or "eternal way".[2][33]

Beliefs

File:Halebid3.JPG

Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

Hinduism refers to the religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to the major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of adherents that it is such.[34]

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices). [35]

Concept of God

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism,[36] panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; invalid names, e.g. too many

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal.[37] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called non-dualist.[38] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[39] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).[37][40]

Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending on the sect. The ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.[41] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"[42]), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One"[42]) or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"[42]).[38] However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita.[38] There are also schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings.[43]

Devas and avatars

RadheShyam07

Krishna (left), the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu or svayam bhagavan, with his consort Radha, worshiped as Radha Krishna across a number of traditions - traditional painting from the 1700s.

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".[44] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in a particular form as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[45][46] The choice is a matter of individual preference[47] and regional and family traditions.[47]

Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma in society and guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara

Main article: Karma in Hinduism

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed[48] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[49] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[50] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:

“ As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,

similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[51]

”

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[52][53] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.[54][55]

The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),[56] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".[57]

Objectives of human life

Main article: Purusharthas

Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, known as the puruṣārthas: dharma "righteousness, ethikos", artha "livelihood, wealth", kāma "sensual pleasure", mokṣa "liberation, freedom [from samsara]".[58][59]

Yoga

Main article: Yoga

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include:

  • Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion)
  • Karma Yoga (the path of right action)
  • Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation)
  • Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)[60]

An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one of four epochs part of the Yuga cycle).[61] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.[62] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.[60][63]

Practices

File:Ganesh utsav.jpg

A large Ganesha murti from a Ganesh Chaturthi festival in Mumbai

Main article: Puja

Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or veneration),[42] either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,[64] and many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God.[65] The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.[66] A few Hindu sects, such as the Ārya Samāj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities.

Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. [How to reference and link to summary or text] The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age). [How to reference and link to summary or text] Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. [How to reference and link to summary or text]

Rituals

File:Diwali Diya.jpg

Diwali, the festival of lights, is a prime festival of Hinduism. Shown here are traditional Diyas that are often lit during Diwali

The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis,[67] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[68] but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.[68] A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[68] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[68] Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm.[69] The rituals, upacharas, change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.

File:Hindu home temple.jpg

Hindu home shrine

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education.)and Shraadh (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased).[70][71] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[70] On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra and children under five.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.

Pilgrimage and festivals

Main article: Hindu festivals

Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities, including Allahabad, Haridwar, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple. The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.

Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami,Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussera, Durga Puja and Diwali.

Scriptures

Main article: Śruti
Rigveda MS2097

The Rig Veda is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rig Veda manuscript is in Devanagari

Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times".[72][73] The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.[74] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.[75] Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti

Shruti (lit: that which is heard)[76] primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (Ṛṣis),[73] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[77][72][78] Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.[79]

There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma- Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda.[80] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are: the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion).[81] While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.[75][82][83]

Smritis

Naradiyamahapuranam

The Naradeya Purana describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha Nag. Narada and Brahma are also pictured.

Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the epics, which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā, spoken by Krishna, is described as the essence of the Vedas.[84] However Gita, sometimes called Gitopanishad, is more often placed in the Shruti, category, being Upanishadic in content.[85] The Smritis also include the Purāṇas, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives. There are texts with a sectarian nature such as Devī Mahātmya, the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Āgamas. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the caste system.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

History

Main article: History of Hinduism
File:Kailash Tibet.jpg

Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.

The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE).[75][86] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[87] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña, and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. [How to reference and link to summary or text] The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and other Indo-European religions.[88]

The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu thought: the advent and spread of Upanishadic, Jaina, and Buddhist philosophico-religious thought throughout the broader Indian landmass.[89] The Upanishads, Mahavira (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha (founder of Buddhism) taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system. Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.[90] Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[91] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.[92] Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism.[93]

Sanskritic culture goes into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The early medieval Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.[94]

File:New Delhi Temple.jpg

Akshardham Temple in Delhi.

Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[92] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to Islam. Numerous Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims; however some, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[92] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.[95]

Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West. Today modern movements, such as ISKON and the Swaminarayan Faith, attract a large amount of followers across the world. [96]

Society

Denominations

Main article: Hindu denominations
File:Temple de Mînâkshî01.jpg

A view of Meenakshi Temple in Tamil Nadu

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.[97] However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.

Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartists believe in the essential oneness of five or six deities panchadeva or Shanmata (i.e., Tamil Hindus add Skanda [98]) as personifications of the Supreme.

The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who may not understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers. [99]

Other denominations like Ganapatya (the cult of Ganesha) and Saura (Sun worship) are not so widespread.

There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña).

The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes:

“ Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).[100] ”

As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. [How to reference and link to summary or text] Heresy is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.[101]

Ashramas

Main article: Ashrama

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha in one's married and professional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha.[102]

Monasticism

Main article: Sannyasa

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[103] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.[104] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.[103]

Varnas

Main article: Varna in Hinduism

Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "colour, form, appearance");[42]

  • the Brahmins: teachers and priests;
  • the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;
  • the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
  • the Shudras: servants and labourers.

Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.[105] Although the scriptures, since the Rigveda (10.90), contain passages that clearly sanction the Varna system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion. Both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the Vedas, strongly sustain the division of society into four classes (varna) but place little emphasis on the caste system, showing that each individual should find his strengths through different ways such as his astrological signs, actions, personality, and appearance, and do his job for the good of that individual as well as society. Being casted into a class because of what parents he was born from was a political problem and not from the actual science of the religion. A verse from the Rig Veda indicates that a person's occupation was not necessarily determined by that of his family:

“ "I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)[106] ”

In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the Shudras listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.[107] Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists.[108][109]

Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination.[110] The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that

“ "Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."[111] ”

Ahimsa and vegetarianism

Main article: Ahimsa

Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[112] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,[113] the epic Mahabharata[114] and Ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.[115]

In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement,[How to reference and link to summary or text] it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.[116] The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.[117][118] Some Hindus avoid onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic foods.[119] Some avoid meat on specific holy days.

Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for protein-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.[120]

Conversion

See also: List of converts to Hinduism

Concepts of conversion, evangelization, and proselyzation are absent from Hindu literature and in practice have never played a significant role, though acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. Early in its history, in the absence of other competing religions,[clarify] 

Hindus considered everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone they met to be Hindus.[121][122]

The modern view of conversions into Hinduism is influenced by the demise of caste system combined with the persistence of age old ideas of Sanathan Dharm. Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas of acceptability of conversion. Hence, many Hindus continue to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had from birth, while many others continue to believe that anyone who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu, and many believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction to perceived and actual threat of evangelization, prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major religions many modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se.[123]

Hindus in Western countries generally accept and welcome willing converts, whereas in India acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. With the rise of Hindu Revivalist movements, reconversions into Hinduism have also picked up pace.[124] Reconversions are well accepted since conversion out of Hinduism is not recognized. Conversion into Hinduism through marriage is well accepted and often expected in order to enable the non-Hindu partner to fully participate in their spiritual, religious, and cultural roles within the larger Hindu family and society. [How to reference and link to summary or text]

There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life after conversion and a ritual called suddhi ("purification") marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion. Most Hindu sects do not seek converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.[125] However, some Hindu sects and affiliates such as Vedanta Society, Arya Samaj, International Society for Krishna Consciousness, and the Self-Realization Fellowship accept those who have a desire to follow Hinduism.

In general, Hindu view of religious freedom is not based on the freedom to proselytize, but the right to retain one’s religion and not be subject to proselyzation. Hindu leaders are advocating for changing the existing formulation of the freedom of religion clause in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since it favors religions which proselytize.[126]

See also

. Hinduism

  • Hindu deities
  • List of Hindu temples
  • Hindu calendar
  • Hindu denominations
  • Hindu reform movements
  • Hindu mythology

Related systems and religions

  • Sikhism
  • Hinduism and Sikh Panth
  • Ayyavazhi
  • Ayyavazhi and Hinduism
  • Islam and Hinduism

  • Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
  • Proto-Indo-European religion

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. René Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, proposes a definition of the term "religion" and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The modern use of the term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movements (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987); less literally also rendered "eternal way" (so Harvey, Andrew (2001). Teachings of the Hindu Mystics, xiii, Boulder: Shambhala.). See also René Guénon, Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, part III, chapter 5 "The Law of Manu", p. 146. On the meaning of the word "Dharma", see also René Guénon, Studies in Hinduism, Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-69-3, chapter 5, p. 45
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 (2000) Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster.
  4. ↑ Laderman, Gary (2003). Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions, 119, Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. "world's oldest living civilization and religion"
  5. ↑ Turner, Jeffrey S. (1996). Encyclopedia of relationships across the lifespan, 359, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. "It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world"
  6. ↑ Klostermaier 1994, p. 1
  7. ↑ Osborne 2005, p. 9
  8. ↑ Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents. Adherents.com. URL accessed on 2007-07-10.
  9. ↑ The Gita Dhyanam is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the Bhagavad Gita. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them. (Chidbhavananda 1997, pp. 67–74)
  10. ↑ Lipner 1998, pp. 7–8
  11. ↑ See Indo-European sound laws for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"
  12. ↑ Thapar, R. 1993. Interpreting Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77
  13. ↑ David Lorenzen, Who Invented Hinduism? New Delhi 2006, pp. 24-33; Rajatarangini of Yonaraja : "Hinduka"
  14. ↑ "...that many-sided and all-enfolding culture which we in the West have chosen to call Hinduism" Jan Gonda, Visnuism and Sivaism, Munshiram Manoharlal. 1996, ISBN 812150287X p. 1. cited by Welbon, G.R. (Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 1, 98+100. Mar., 1975.). Review: Love of God According to Saiva Siddhanta: A Study in the Mysticism and Theology of Saivism by Mariasusay Dhanamoy.
  15. ↑ J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0195170210
  16. ↑ Bryan S. Turner "Essays on the Sociology of Fate - Page 275"
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Flood 2001, Defining Hinduism
  18. ↑ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, p. 434
  19. ↑ Vaz, P. (2001), "Coexistence of Secularism and Fundamentalism in India", Handbook of Global Social Policy: 124, http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&id=opHYPSvPpWYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA123&dq=oldest+major+tradition+Hinduism&ots=dvtYVKGW2O&sig=evj3yKYq4oNkrZDX1tQ_UrKLTb8, retrieved on 2008-06-26, "Hinduism is the oldest of all the major world religions." 
  20. ↑ Eastman, R. (1999). The Ways of Religion: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, Oxford University Press, USA.
  21. ↑ Joel Beversluis (2000). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality (Sourcebook of the World's Religions, 3rd ed), 50, Novato, Calif: New World Library.
  22. ↑ Weightman & Klostermaier 1994, p. 1
  23. ↑ Bhagavad Gita, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan: "Hinduism is not just a faith. It is the union of reason and intuition that can not be defined but is only to be experienced."
  24. ↑ Ferro-Luzzi,(1991)The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) Hinduism Reconsidered. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187-95
  25. ↑ Smart, (1993) The Formation Rather than the Origin of a Tradition,in DISKUS: A Disembodied Journal of Religious Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1
  26. ↑ Smith, W.C. (1962) The Meaning and End of Religion. San Francisco, Harper and Row. p. 65
  27. ↑ Stietencron, on, Hinduism: On the Proper Use of A Deceptive Term, pp.1-22
  28. ↑ Halbfass, (1991) Tradition and Reflection. Albany, SUNY Press. pp. 1-22
  29. ↑ Klostermaier 1994, p. 1
  30. ↑ JSTOR: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Apr., 1984 ), pp. 234-236. www.jstor.org.
  31. ↑ David Kopf Review: Imagining India by Ronald Inden: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 112, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1992 ), pp. 674-677. www.jstor.org. URL accessed on 2008-08-04.
  32. ↑ Hinduism in Britain Kim Knott, (2000) The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and a United States.
  33. ↑ Harvey, Andrew (2001). Teachings of the Hindu Mystics, xiii, Boulder: Shambhala.
  34. ↑ Weightman 1998, pp. 262–264 "It is Hindu self-awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be one single religious universe, no matter how richly varied its contents, and make it a significant and potent force alongside the other religions of the world."
  35. ↑ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions, Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press.
  36. ↑ (2007). Polytheism. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. URL accessed on 2007-07-05.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 20–37
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 & Bhaskarananda 1994
  39. ↑ Vivekananda 1987
  40. ↑ Werner 1994, p. p37
  41. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 7
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 Monier-Williams 2001 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "MW Sanskrit dict." defined multiple times with different content
  43. ↑ Sen Gupta 1986, p. viii
  44. ↑ For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. The highest are the immortal Mahadevas, such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, are described as their offspring: they are "born", and their "lifespan" is quite limited. In ISKCON the word is translated as "demigods", although it can also denote such heavenly denizens as gandharvas. See: Vedic cosmology. Vedic Knowledge Online. VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. URL accessed on 2007-06-25.. For translation of devatā as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.
  45. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 80
  46. ↑ Renou 1961, p. 55
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Harman 2004, pp. 104–106
  48. ↑ * {{{Last}}} ({{{Year}}})
  49. ↑ Smith 1991, p. 64
  50. ↑ Radhakrishnan 1996, p. 254
  51. ↑ Bhagavad Gita 2.22
  52. ↑ See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20
  53. ↑ See {{{Last}}} ({{{Year}}}) 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)
  54. ↑ Rinehart 2004, pp. 19–21
  55. ↑ Bhaskarananda 1994, pp. 79–86
  56. ↑ The Christian concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or loka are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God.
  57. ↑ Nikhilananda 1992
  58. ↑ as discussed in Mahābhārata 12.161; Bilimoria et al. (eds.), Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (2007), p. 103; see also Werner 1994, Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 7
  59. ↑ (2006) The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (iRght Wealth), Kama (Rght Desire), Moksha (Right Exit (Liberation)), Pustak Mahal.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Bhaskarananda 1994
  61. ↑ For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." (Bhaktivedanta 1997, ch. 11.54)
  62. ↑ "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." (Bhaktivedanta 1997, ch. 5.5)
  63. ↑ Monier-Williams 1974, p. 116
  64. ↑ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 157
  65. ↑ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 137
  66. ↑ arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.
  67. ↑ Religious Life. Religions of India. Global Peace Works. URL accessed on 2007-04-19.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 Domestic Worship. Country Studies. The Library of Congress. URL accessed on 2007-04-19.
  69. ↑ Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. URL accessed on 2007-06-25.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Life-Cycle Rituals. Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. URL accessed on 2007-04-19.
  71. ↑ Banerjee, Suresh Chandra Shraddha. Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. URL accessed on 2007-04-20.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Vivekananda 1987, pp. 6–7 Vol I
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Vivekananda 1987, pp. 118–120 Vol III
  74. ↑ Sargeant & Chapple 1984, p. 3
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 Nikhilananda 1990, pp. 3–8
  76. ↑ See, for instance, René Guénon Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta (1925 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-62-4, chapter 1, "General remarks on the Vedanta, p.7.
  77. ↑ Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal.
  78. ↑ {{{Last}}} ({{{Year}}})
  79. ↑ Vivekananda 1987, p. 374 Vol II
  80. ↑ Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.
  81. ↑ Swami Shivananda's mission. URL accessed on 2007-06-25.
  82. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 166
  83. ↑ Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 25–41
  84. ↑ Sarvopaniṣado gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is.
  85. ↑ Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Sep., 1984), pp. 435-459
  86. ↑ "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".
  87. ↑ T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
  88. ↑ The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythology[1], cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
  89. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick, "The renouncer tradition", in Flood 2003, pp. 273–274
  90. ↑ Eliot 2003
  91. ↑ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 Basham 1999
  93. ↑ The rise of Jainism and Buddhism. Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. URL accessed on 2007-04-21.
  94. ↑ Vijay Nath, From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition, Social Scientist 2001, pp. 19-50.
  95. ↑ J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in & Basham 1999
  96. ↑ Raymond Brady Williams (2004). Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works, Ashgate Publishing Ltd..p.217
  97. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 73
  98. ↑ http://www.mailerindia.com/god/hindu/index.php?skanda
  99. ↑ Heart of Hinduism: The Smarta Tradition
  100. ↑ Banerji 1992, p. 2
  101. ↑ India and Hinduism. Religion of World. ThinkQuest Library. URL accessed on 2007-07-17.
  102. ↑ S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in Rinehart 2004, pp. 165–168
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 112
  104. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 316
  105. ↑ Michaels 2004, pp. 188–197
  106. ↑ Later scriptures however, such as the Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) state that the four varṇa divisions are created by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the Gītā says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage Vishvāmitra was a king of the Kṣhatriya caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, Vālmiki, once a low-caste robber, became a sage. Veda Vyāsa.
  107. ↑ White Yajurveda 26.2
  108. ↑ Silverberg 1969, pp. 442–443
  109. ↑ Smelser & Lipset 2005
  110. ↑ Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India", in Rinehart 2004
  111. ↑ Nikhilananda 1992, p. 155
  112. ↑ Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)
  113. ↑ Radhakrishnan, S (1929). Indian Philosophy, Volume 1, 2nd edition, 148, London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd..
  114. ↑ For ahiṃsā as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the Mahābhārata see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125.
  115. ↑ For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of yama as "vow of self-restraint", see: Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of Yoga, Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House., p. 206.
  116. ↑ Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India", "Indian consumer patterns" and "Agri reform in India". Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.
  117. ↑ {{{Last}}} ({{{Year}}})
  118. ↑ includeonly>Yadav, Y., Kumar, S. "The food habits of a nation", The Hindu, August 14, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  119. ↑ See, Basak, R., "The Hindu concept of the natural world" in Morgan 1987, pp. 111-112; see also {{{Last}}} ({{{Year}}}) p. 2.
  120. ↑ includeonly>Krishnakumar, R.. "Beef without borders", Frontline, Narasimhan Ram, August 30-September 12, 2003. Retrieved on 2006-10-07.
  121. ↑ Geoffray, Davis; Peter Marsden, Benedicte Ledent, Marc Delrez (2005). Towards a Transcultural Future: Literature and society in a post-colonial world, 106, Rodopi.
  122. ↑ Ketkar, Shridhar (1909). The History of Caste in India, 87–89, Taylor & Carpenter.
  123. ↑ Omar, Rashid (8 2006). The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostasy and Proselytization, 3, Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame.
  124. ↑ Reuter, Thomas (9 2004). Java's Hinduism Revivial, Hinduism Today.
  125. ↑ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
  126. ↑ Omar, Rashid (8 2006). The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostasy and Proselytization, 4, Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame.

see Indian supreme court judgement over Hindusim http://www.bjp.org/history/htv-jag.html

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Secularism
and irreligion 

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