Cynicism

Personality: Self concept · Personality testing · Theories · Mind-body problem

This article needs rewriting to enhance its relevance to psychologists..
Please help to improve this page yourself if you can..

Cynicism (Greek: Kυνισμός

) was originally the philosophy of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Antisthenes.^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]} The Cynics rejected all conventions, whether of religion, manners, housing, dress, or decency, advocating the pursuit of virtue in a simple and unmaterialistic lifestyle.^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}

Currently, the word 'cynicism' generally describes the opinions of those who maintain that self-interest is the primary motive of human behaviour, and are disinclined to rely upon sincerity, human virtue, or altruism as motivations.^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}

History of Cynicism

The Cynics believed virtue was the only necessity for happiness, and that it was entirely sufficient for attaining happiness. The Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title 'Cynics', derived from the Greek word 'kuon', 'dog' in English, was assigned them because they lived like dogs—neglecting society, personal hygiene, family obligations, pursuing money—to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, lives.^[1]

Toward modern cynicism

Nearly 2000 years after Greek philosophers embraced cynicism, 17th and 18th century writers such as Shakespeare, Swift, and Voltaire used irony, sarcasm, and satire to ridicule human conduct and revive cynicism. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century literary and cinema figures such as Mark Twain, Dorothy Parker, H.L. Mencken, and W.C. Fields used both these modes of perception and other, new ones in communicating their low opinions of human nature. By 1930, Bertrand Russell—in the essay On Youthful Cynicism—was describing the extent to which cynicism had penetrated Western mass consciousness, and noting particular areas where there was much about which to be cynical: religion, country (patriotism), progress, beauty, truth. Certainly, the first half of the 20th century, with its two world wars, offered little hope to people wishing to embrace an idealism diametrically opposed to cynicism: that people can be trusted, have good intentions, are caring, decent, and honourable.

Many felt that the second half of this century was characterized by a general rejection of virtue and self-restraint, and toward materialism—particularly in what Pope John Paul II termed "the cynical society of consumerism" in his 1984 Christmas remarks. The same communications media whose advertising bolstered consumerism also occasionally promoted entertaining conspiracy theories, thus adding a new "hidden agenda" dimension to the cynicism of some.^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}

In recent decades, scientific study of human nature—one book's title characterized it as The Battle for Human Nature [Schwartz]—focused new attention on cynicism. In attempting to counter the widespread belief that "jungle ethics" and the associated competition, self-interest, and survival of the fittest are innate to the human animal, researchers looked for a genetic basis for co-operation and altruistic behaviour, and signs that human societal participation ultimately was built upon them.

In underscoring cynicism's wide spread in Western society, in 2005 Yale University researchers found that children, as young as eight years old, regularly discounted the statements of others as tarnished with self-interest.^[2]

Cynicism in the work place

Cynisism in political psychology

References

Kohn, Alfie The Brighter Side of Human Nature New York: Basic Books 1990
Schwartz, Barry The Battle for Human Nature New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1986

Abbott, T. E. (1985). The relationship of cynicism to repression-sensitization defense styles among law enforcement personnel: Dissertation Abstracts International.

Abraham, R. (2000). Organizational cynicism: Bases and consequences: Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs Vol 126(3) Aug 2000, 269-292.
Agust Nieto, S., Grau, R., & Beas, M. (2001). Burnout in women: A comparative study between working and non-working contexts: Ansiedad y Estres Vol 7(1) 2001, 79-88.
Aiello, A., Leone, L., & Chirumbolo, A. (2005). The double nature of the autoritarismo: An empirical contributions: Giornale Italiano di Psicologia Vol 32(2) May 2005, 331-351.
Aletkin, S. M. (1983). Cynicism among direct care staff at two state facilities for the mentally handicapped: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Aletkin, S. M. (1987). Cynicism among professional staff at a state facility for the mentally handicapped: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Allred, K. D., & Smith, T. W. (1991). Social cognition in cynical hostility: Cognitive Therapy and Research Vol 15(5) Oct 1991, 399-412.
Almada, S. J., Zonderman, A. B., Shekelle, R. B., Dyer, A. R., & et al. (1991). Neuroticism and cynicism and risk of death in middle-aged men: The Western Electric Study: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 53(2) Mar-Apr 1991, 165-175.
Ammeter, A. P., Douglas, C., Hochwarter, W. A., Ferris, G. R., & Gardner, W. L. (2004). Introduction to: The Leadership Quarterly special issue on political perspectives in leadership: Leadership Quarterly Vol 15(4) Aug 2004, 433-435.
Anderson, R. W. (1994). Anger experience, anger expression, and cynicism in cardiovascular reactivity: Some differential effects in normotensive men under thirty. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Andersson, L. M. (1996). Employee cynicism: An examination using a contract violation framework: Human Relations Vol 49(11) Nov 1996, 1395-1418.
Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects: Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol 18(5) Sep 1997, 449-469.
Anson, R. H., Mann, J. D., & Sherman, D. (1986). Niederhoffer's cynicism scale: Reliability and beyond: Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 14(4) 1986, 295-305.
Arnett, J. J. (1996). Metal heads: Heavy metal music and adolescent alienation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Aston, J., & Lavery, J. (1993). The health of women in paid employment: Effects of quality of work role, social support and cynicism on psychological and physical well-being: Women & Health Vol 20(3) 1993, 1-25.
Atwater, L. E., Waldman, D. A., Atwater, D., & Cartier, P. (2000). An upward feedback field experiment: Supervisors' cynicism, reactions, and commitment to subordinates: Personnel Psychology Vol 53(2) Sum 2000, 275-297.
Austin, E. W., & Pinkleton, B. E. (2001). The role of parental mediation in the political socialization process: Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media Vol 45(2) Spr 2001, 221-240.
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. C. (2005). Job Resources Buffer the Impact of Job Demands on Burnout: Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Vol 10(2) Apr 2005, 170-180.
Bakker, A. B., & Heuven, E. (2006). Emotional Dissonance, Burnout, and In-Role Performance Among Nurses and Police Officers: International Journal of Stress Management Vol 13(4) Nov 2006, 423-440.
Bakker, A. B., Westman, M., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). Crossover of burnout: An experimental design: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology Vol 16(2) Jun 2007, 220-239.
Barthlow, D. L. (2003). Construct validity of the MMPI-2 College Maladjustment Scale. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Bartley, A. E. (2006). Correlates of occupational burnout in counselor educators. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Bateman, T. S., Sakano, T., & Fujita, M. (1992). Roger, me, and my attitude: Film propaganda and cynicism toward corporate leadership: Journal of Applied Psychology Vol 77(5) Oct 1992, 768-771.
Bedeian, A. G. (2007). Even if the tower is "ivory," it isn't "white:" Understanding the consequences of faculty cynicism: Academy of Management Learning & Education Vol 6(1) Mar 2007, 9-32.
Bernerth, J. B., Armenakis, A. A., Feild, H. S., & Walker, H. J. (2007). Justice, cynicism, and commitment: A study of important organizational change variables: Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Vol 43(3) Sep 2007, 303-326.
Bernstein, J. L. (2001). Linking presidential and congressional approval during unified and divided governments. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Bilas-Henne, M. (2006). Social axioms and love styles in Spain and in Poland: Studia Psychologiczne Vol 44(1) 2006, 23-33.
Blackhurst, A. (2002). A comparison of college students' political attitudes and participation rates in 1996 and 2000: Journal of College Student Development Vol 43(5) Sep-Oct 2002, 740-750.
Blaney, N. T., Morgan, R. O., Feaster, D., Millon, C., & et al. (1991). Cynical hostility: A risk factor in HIV-1 infection? : Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 21(8) Apr 1991, 668-695.
Blaser, A. (1976). Irony and cynicism as defense mechanisms: Confinia Psychiatrica Vol 19(2) 1976, 80-88.
Bobbio, A., Manganelli Rattazzi, A. M., & Spadaro, S. (2006). Organizational cynicism. Contribution to the validation of the Italian version of Brandes, Dhanvadkar & Dean's (1999) scale: Testing Psicometria Metodologia Vol 13(1) 2006, 5-23.
Bommer, W. H., Rich, G. A., & Rubin, R. S. (2005). Changing attitudes about change: Longitudinal effects of transformational leader behavior on employee cynicism about organizational change: Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol 26(7) Nov 2005, 733-753.
Bommer, W. H., Rubin, R. S., & Baldwin, T. T. (2004). Setting the stage for effective leadership: Antecedents of transformational leadership behavior: Leadership Quarterly Vol 15(2) Apr 2004, 195-210.
Bond, M. H., Leung, K., Au, A., Tong, K.-K., De Carrasquel, S. R., Murakami, F., et al. (2004). Culture-Level Dimensions of Social Axioms and Their Correlates Across 41 Cultures: Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology Vol 35(5) Sep 2004, 548-570.
Bowling, N. A. (2006). Dispositional approach to satisfaction with social facets of work: The role of dispositional cynicism. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Boyd, S. L. (2006). Core self-evaluations as a moderator of the job stress-burnout relationship. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Brandes, P., Castro, S. L., James, M. S. L., Martinez, A. D., Matherly, T. A., Ferris, G. R., et al. (2008). The interactive effects of job insecurity and organizational cynicism on work effort following a layoff: Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies Vol 14(3) Feb 2008, 233-247.
Brandes, P. M. (1998). Organizational cynicism: Its nature, antecedents, and consequences. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Brewer, P. R. (2004). Public trust in (or cynicism about) other nations across time: Political Behavior Vol 26(4) Dec 2004, 317-341.
Brinson, K. L. (2005). Evaluating the association between perceived racism and academic achievement in historically Black and predominantly White colleges. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Brockway, J. H., Carlson, K. A., Jones, S. K., & Bryant, F. B. (2002). Development and validation of a scale for measuring cynical attitudes toward college: Journal of Educational Psychology Vol 94(1) Mar 2002, 210-224.
Burke, R. J. (2001). Nursing staff survivor responses to hospital restructuring and downsizing: Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress Vol 17(4) Jul 2001, 195-205.
Burke, R. J., & Mikkelsen, A. (2006). Burnout Among Norwegian Police Officers: Potential Antecedents and Consequences: International Journal of Stress Management Vol 13(1) Feb 2006, 64-83.
Carmelli, D., Rosenman, R. H., & Swan, G. E. (1988). The Cook and Medley HO scale: A heritability analysis in adult male twins: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 50(2) Mar-Apr 1988, 165-174.
Carmelli, D., Swan, G. E., & Rosenman, R. H. (1991). The heritability of the Cook and Medley Hostility Scale revisited. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Carr, P. J., Napolitano, L., & Keating, J. (2007). We never call the cops and here is why: A qualitative examination of legal cynicism in three Philadelphia neighborhoods: Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal Vol 45(2) May 2007, 445-480.
Carsten, M. K. (2007). Vision in focus: Investigating follower processes that mediate vision articulation and organizational outcomes. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Cartwright, S., & Holmes, N. (2006). The meaning of work: The challenge of regaining employee engagement and reducing cynicism: Human Resource Management Review Vol 16(2) Jun 2006, 199-208.
Chandler, E. V., & Jones, C. S. (1979). Cynicism: An inevitability of police work? : Journal of Police Science & Administration Vol 7(1) Mar 1979, 65-68.
Chiu, C. C. H. (2005). Cynicism about Community Engagement in Hong Kong: Sociological Spectrum Vol 25(4) Jul-Aug 2005, 447-467.
Christensen, A. J., Edwards, D. L., Wiebe, J. S., Benotsch, E. G., & et al. (1996). Effect of verbal self-disclosure on natural killer cell activity: Moderating influence of cynical hostility: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 58(2) Mar-Apr 1996, 150-155.
Christensen, A. J., & Smith, T. W. (1993). Cynical hostility and cardiovascular reactivity during self-disclosure: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 55(2) Mar-Apr 1993, 193-202.
Christensen, A. J., Wiebe, J. S., & Lawton, W. J. (1997). Cynical hostility, powerful others control expectancies, and patient adherence in hemodialysis: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 59(3) May-Jun 1997, 307-312.
Citrin, J., & Luks, S. (2001). Political trust revisited: Deja vu all over again? New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Clark, M. E. (1994). Interpretive limitations of the MMPI-2 anger and cynicism content scales: Journal of Personality Assessment Vol 63(1) Aug 1994, 89-96.
Cole, M. S., Bruch, H., & Vogel, B. (2006). Emotion as Mediators of the Relations Between Perceived Supervisor Support and Psychological Hardiness on Employee Cynicism: Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol 27(4) Jun 2006, 463-484.
Costa, P. T., Zonderman, A. B., McCrae, R. R., & Williams, R. B. (1986). Cynicism and paranoid alienation in the Cook and Medley HO Scale: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 48(3-4) Mar-Apr 1986, 283-285.
Cozzens, M. D., & Contractor, N. S. (1987). The effect of conflicting information on media skepticism: Communication Research Vol 14(4) Aug 1987, 437-451.
Crank, J. P., Culbertson, R. G., Poole, E. D., & Regoli, R. M. (1987). The measurement of cynicism among police chiefs: Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 15(1) 1987, 37-48.
Cutler, I. (2000). The cynical manager: Management Learning Vol 31(3) Sep 2000, 295-312.
Davis, W. D., & Gardner, W. L. (2004). Perceptions of politics and organizational cynicism: An attributional and leader-member exchange perspective: Leadership Quarterly Vol 15(4) Aug 2004, 439-465.
de Vreese, C. (2004). The Effects of Strategic News on Political Cynicism, Issue Evaluations, and Policy Support: A Two-Wave Experiment: Mass Communication and Society Vol 7(2) 2004, 191-214.
de Vreese, C. H. (2005). The Spiral of Cynicism Reconsidered: European Journal of Communication Vol 20(3) Sep 2005, 283-301.
de Vreese, C. H., & Semetko, H. A. (2002). Cynical and engaged: Strategic campaign coverage, public opinion and mobilization in a referendum: Communication Research Vol 29(6) Dec 2002, 615-641.
Deutsch, M. (1968). Review of Behind the Shield: The Police in Urban Society: PsycCRITIQUES Vol 13 (6), Jun, 1968.
Dodder, R. A., & Astle, D. J. (1980). A methodological analysis of Srole's nine-item Anomia scale: Multivariate Behavioral Research Vol 15(3) Jul 1980, 329-334.
Dujovne, V. F., & Houston, B. K. (1991). Hostility-related variables and plasma lipid levels: Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 14(6) Dec 1991, 555-565.
Eaton, J., & Struthers, C. W. (2002). Using the Internet for organizational research: A study of cynicism in the workplace: CyberPsychology & Behavior Vol 5(4) Aug 2002, 305-313.
Egan, D. L. (1982). Occupational cynicism: A comparative study of police officers, firefighters, and nurses: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Eiguer, A. (1992). When cynics went to heaven: Revue Francaise de Psychanalyse Vol 56 May 1992, 1673-1677.
Eiguer, A., & Slotkin, P. (1999). Cynicism: Its function in the perversions: International Journal of Psycho-Analysis Vol 80(4) Aug 1999, 671-684.
Falvo, R., Trifiletti, E., Andrighetto, L., & Capozza, D. (2006). Organizational commitment, commitment to change and burnout: TPM-Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology Vol 13(3) Aut 2006, 225-236.
Farmer, R. E. (1977). Cynicism: A factor in corrections work: Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 5(3) Fal 1977, 237-246.
Feldman, D. C. (2000). The Dilbert syndrome: How employee cynicism about ineffective management is changing the nature of careers in organizations: American Behavioral Scientist Vol 43(8) May 2000, 1286-1300.
Felsten, G. (1995). Cynical hostility influences anger, but not cardiovascular reactivity during competition with harassment: International Journal of Psychophysiology Vol 19(3) Apr 1995, 223-231.
Felsten, G. (1996). Cardiovascular reactivity during a cognitive task with anger provocation: Partial support for a cynical hostility-anger-reactivity link: Journal of Psychophysiology Vol 10(2) 1996, 97-107.
Fenner, C. F. (1993). Sex hormones and coronary-prone personality factors: A psychoendocrine study: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Fero, H. C. (2005). Flow and cynicism in the workplace. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Fife-Schaw, C., & Breakwell, G. M. (1990). Predicting the intention not to vote in late teenage: A U.K. study of 17- and 18-year-olds: Political Psychology Vol 11(4) Dec 1990, 739-755.
Fischman, J. (1987). Type A on trial: Psychology Today Vol 21(2) Feb 1987, 42-50.
Fitzgerald, M. R. (2003). Organizational cynicism: Its relationship to perceived organizational injustice and explanatory style. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Fleming, P. (2005). Workers' Playtime? Boundaries and Cynicism in a "Culture of Fun" Program: Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Vol 41(3) Sep 2005, 285-303.
Flouri, E. (2004). Mothers' Nonauthoritarian Child-Rearing Attitudes in Early Childhood and Children's Adult Values: European Psychologist Vol 9(3) Sep 2004, 154-162.
Fontana, A. F., Kerns, R. D., Blatt, S. J., Rosenberg, R. L., & et al. (1989). Cynical mistrust and the search for self-worth: Journal of Psychosomatic Research Vol 33(4) 1989, 449-456.
Frymier, J. (1997). Cynics in the high school: The High School Journal Vol 81(1) Oct-Nov 1997, 37-45.
Fulmer, R. M. (1968). Diagnosis: Collegiate cynicism syndrome: I: Personnel Journal 47(2) 1968, 99-103.
Gall, N. R. (2006). Review of Defending science--within reason: Between scientism and cynicism: Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences Vol 42(3) Sum 2006, 289-290.
Garcia, G. M. (2002). Burnout and engagement in a preprofessional group: University students: Boletin de Psicologia (Spain) Vol 74(1) Mar 2002, 79-102.
Gentile, M. C., & Samuelson, J. F. (2005). Keynote Address to the AACSB International Deans Conference, February 10, 2003: The State of Affairs for Management Education and Social Responsibility: Academy of Management Learning & Education Vol 4(4) Dec 2005, 496-505.
Golembiewski, R. T. (1998). Dealing with doubt and cynicism about organization change, the old-fashioned way: Empirical data about success rates in OD and QWL. Us: Elsevier Science/JAI Press.
Gonzalez-Roma, V., Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Lloret, S. (2006). Burnout and work engagement: Independent factors or opposite poles? : Journal of Vocational Behavior Vol 68(1) Feb 2006, 165-174.
Grabb, E. G. (1979). Working class authoritarianism and tolerance of outgroups: A reassessment: Public Opinion Quarterly Vol 43(1) Spr 1979, 36-47.
Greenglass, E. R. (1996). Anger suppression, cynical distrust, and hostility: Implications for coronary heart disease: Spielberger, Charles Donald (Ed); Sarason, Irwin G (Ed); Brebner, John M T (Ed); Greenglass, Esther (Ed); Laungani, Pittu (Ed); et al.
Greenglass, E. R., & Burke, R. J. (2000). Hospital downsizing, individual resources, and occupational stressors in nurses: Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal Vol 13(4) 2000, 371-390.
Greenglass, E. R., & Julkunen, J. (1989). Construct validity and sex differences in Cook-Medley Hostility: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 10(2) 1989, 209-218.
Greenglass, E. R., & Julkunen, J. (1991). Cook-Medley hostility, anger, and the Type A behavior pattern in Finland: Psychological Reports Vol 68(3, Pt 2) Jun 1991, 1059-1066.
Guastello, D. D., & Pessig, R. M. (1998). Authoritarianism, environmentalism, and cynicism of college students and their parents: Journal of Research in Personality Vol 32(4) Dec 1998, 397-410.
Guastello, S. J., Rieke, M. L., Guastello, D. D., & Billings, S. W. (1992). A study of cynicism, personality, and work values: Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied Vol 126(1) Jan 1992, 37-48.
Hart, K. E. (1999). Cynical hostility and deficiencies in functional support: The moderating role of gender in psychosocial vulnerability to disease: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 27(1) Jul 1999, 69-83.
Hart, K. E., & Hope, C. W. (2004). Cynical hostility and the psychosocial vulnerability model of disease risk: Confounding effects of neuroticism (negative affectivity) bias: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 36(7) May 2004, 1571-1582.
Harvey, O. J., Frank, H., Gore, E. J., & Batres, A. R. (1998). Relationship of belief systems to shame and guilt: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 25(4) Oct 1998, 769-783.
Haukkala, A., & Uutela, A. (2000). Cynical hostility, depression, and obesity: The moderating role of education and gender: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 27(1) Jan 2000, 106-109.
Haukkala, A., Uutela, A., & Salomaa, V. (2001). Depressive symptoms, cynical hostility, and weight change: A 3-year follow-up among middle-aged men and women: International Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 8(2) Jun 2001, 116-133.
Heyman, G. D., Fu, G., & Lee, K. (2007). Evaluating claims people make about themselves: The development of skepticism: Child Development Vol 78(2) Mar-Apr 2007, 367-375.
Hickman, M. J., Piquero, N. L., & Piquero, A. R. (2004). The validity of Niederhoffer's cynicism scale: Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 32(1) Jan-Feb 2004, 1-13.
Houston, B. K., & Vavak, C. R. (1991). Cynical hostility: Developmental factors, psychosocial correlates, and health behaviors: Health Psychology Vol 10(1) 1991, 9-17.
Hunter, G. B. (2004). Cynicism and its effects on mock juror decision-making. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Inamoto, E., Ando, K., Kageyama, T., Okada, T., Ishii, T., Asukai, N., et al. (2002). Traumatic experience and "avoidance" mechanism--From an community survey on violence against women: Journal of Mental Health No 48 2002, 35-41.
Iren, J. (2004). Humor and psychiatry: Psychiatria Hungarica Vol 19(5) 2004, 380-389.
Izawa, S., Kodama, M., & Nomura, S. (2006). Dimensions of Hostility in Japanese Undergraduate Students: International Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 13(2) 2006, 147-152.
Jamner, L. D., Shapiro, D., Goldstein, I. B., & Hug, R. (1991). Ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in paramedics: Effects of cynical hostility and defensiveness: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 53(4) Jul-Aug 1991, 393-406.
Jankowski, S. (2006). The effectiveness of anger management group therapy in the treatment of chemically dependent patients. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Johnson, J. L., & O'Leary-Kelly, A. M. (2003). The effects of psychological contract breach and organizational cynicism: Not all social exchange violations are created equal: Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol 24(5, SpecIssue) Aug 2003, 627-647.
Johnston, A. (2004). The Cynic's Fetish: Slavoj Zizek and the Dynamics of Belief: Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society Vol 9(3) Dec 2004, 259-283.
Jones, R. S. (1976). Community participation as pedagogy: Its effects on political attitudes of Black students: Journal of Negro Education Vol 45(4) Fal 1976, 397-407.
Jordan, M. H., Schraeder, M., Feild, H. S., & Armenakis, A. A. (2007). Organizational citizenship behavior, job attitudes, and the psychological contract: Military Psychology Vol 19(4) 2007, 259-271.
Jorgensen, R. S., Abdul-Karim, K., Kahan, T. A., & Frankowsi, J. J. (1995). Defensiveness, cynical hostility and cardiovascular reactivity: A moderator analysis: Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics Vol 64(3-4) 1995, 156-161.
Josephs, L. (1987). The schizophrenic patient's experience of the treatment regimen: Dynamic Psychotherapy Vol 5(2) Fal-Win 1987, 173-182.
Kaid, L. L. (2002). Political advertising and information seeking: Comparing exposure via traditional and Internet channels: Journal of Advertising Vol 31(1) Spr 2002, 27-35.
Kaid, L. L., Postelnicu, M., Landreville, K., Yun, H. J., & LeGrange, A. G. (2007). The effects of political advertising on young voters: American Behavioral Scientist Vol 50(9) May 2007, 1137-1151.
Kanter, D. L. (1988). Cynical marketers at work: Journal of Advertising Research Vol 28(6) Dec-Jan 1988-1989, 28-34.
Kanter, D. L., & Mirvis, P. H. (1989). The cynical Americans: Living and working in an age of discontent and disillusion. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Kaplan, S. A., Bradley, J. C., & Ruscher, J. B. (2004). The inhibitory role of cynical disposition in the provision and receipt of social support: The case of the September 11th terrorist attacks: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 37(6) Oct 2004, 1221-1232.
Karp, J. A. (1995). Explaining public support for legislative term limits: Public Opinion Quarterly Vol 59(3) Fal 1995, 373-391.
Kath, L. M. (2005). How cynicism about organizational change can influence the effectiveness of socialization training: Sexual harassment awareness training as exemplar. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Kazoleas, D. C. (1993). The impact of argumentativeness and cynicism on cognitive response and attitude change: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Kelner, S. P. (1991). Interpersonal motivation: Positive, cynical, and anxious: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Keyes, D. (2006). Seeing through cynicism: A reconsideration of the power of suspicion. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Kirkwood, S. C., Siemers, E., Viken, R. J., Hodes, M. E., Conneally, P. M., Christian, J. C., et al. (2002). Evaluation of psychological symptoms among presymptomatic HD gene carriers as measured by selected MMPI scales: Journal of Psychiatric Research Vol 36(6) Nov-Dec 2002, 377-382.
Kosmala, K., & Herrbach, O. (2006). The ambivalence of professional identity: On cynicism and jouissance in audit firms: Human Relations Vol 59(10) Oct 2006, 1393-1428.
Kottick, J. (2005). Therapist Anger, Despair, Cynicism. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
Kruger, J., & Gilovich, T. (1999). "Naive cynicism" in everyday theories of responsibility assessment: On biased assumptions of bias: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol 76(5) May 1999, 743-753.
Kubany, E. S., Gino, A., Denny, N. R., & Torigoe, R. Y. (1994). Relationship of cynical hostility and PTSD among Vietnam veterans: Journal of Traumatic Stress Vol 7(1) Jan 1994, 21-31.
Kunze, M. G. (2006). An examination of the linkages between personality, leader-member exchange, and experienced violation of the psychological contract. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Langworthy, R. H. (1987). Police cynicism: What we know from the Niederhoffer scale: Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 15(1) 1987, 17-35.
Lanier, M. M., & Sloan, J. J. (1996). Cynicism, fear, communication, and knowledge of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) among juvenile delinquents: Crime & Delinquency Vol 42(2) Apr 1996, 231-243.
Larkin, K. T., Martin, R. R., & McClain, S. E. (2002). Cynical hostility and the accuracy of decoding facial expressions of emotions: Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 25(3) Jun 2002, 285-292.
Laszlo, H. (2007). Perception of the terrorist as a literary protagonist and psychological study of literary text processing 2: Pszichologia: Az MTA Pszichologiai Intezetenek folyoirata Vol 27(2) 2007, 111-133.
Lee, A.-R. (2003). Down and Down We Go: Trust and Compliance in South Korea: Social Science Quarterly Vol 84(2) Jun 2003, 329-343.
Lee, L. V. (2000). Student political cynicism: Origins, influences, and implications. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Lepore, S. J. (1995). Cynicism, social support, and cardiovascular reactivity: Health Psychology Vol 14(3) May 1995, 210-216.
Lester, D. (1982). Job satisfaction, cynicism, education, and belief in an internal locus of control in police: Psychological Reports Vol 50(3, Pt 2) Jun 1982, 1214.
Lester, D. (1984). Cynicism of police and job satisfaction: Psychological Reports Vol 54(2) Apr 1984, 558.
Lester, D. (1987). Correlates of job satisfaction in police officers: Psychological Reports Vol 60(2) Apr 1987, 550.
Lisspers, J., Nygren, A., & Soderman, E. (1998). Psychological patterns in patients with coronary heart disease, chronic pain and respiratory disorder: Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences Vol 12(1) 1998, 25-31.
Luczywek, D. R. (2007). Can personality buffer cynicism? moderating effects of extraversion and neuroticism in response to workplace hassles. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Lynch, M. P. (2004). True to life: Why truth matters. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Macaskill, A. (2007). Exploring religious involvement, forgiveness, trust, and cynicism: Mental Health, Religion & Culture Vol 10(3) May 2007, 203-218.
Mahoney, S. F. (1995). Incidence of hostility among superintendents of large, medium, and small school districts in Northern versus Southern California. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Mauss, A. L. (1991). Science, social movements, and cynicism: Appreciating the political context of sociological research in alcohol studies. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies.
McCarthy, A., & Garavan, T. (2006). Postfeedback Development Perceptions: Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior: Human Resource Development Quarterly Vol 17(3) Fal 2006, 245-267.
McCarthy, A. M., & Garavan, T. N. (2007). Understanding acceptance of multisource feedback for management development: Personnel Review Vol 36(6) 2007, 903-917.
McClough, A. C., Rogelberg, S. G., Fisher, G. G., & Bachiochi, P. D. (1998). Cynicism and the quality of an individual's contribution to an organizational diagnostic survey: Organization Development Journal Vol 16(2) Sum 1998, 31-41.
McKay, J. R. (1988). Trust vs. cynicism: The relationship of affiliative orientation to immunocompetence and illness frequency: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Michelson, M. R. (2003). The Corrosive Effect of Acculturation: How Mexican Americans Lose Political Trust: Social Science Quarterly Vol 84(4) Dec 2003, 919-933.
Miller, E. D., & Nathanson, J. (1998). Forever utopia: PsycCRITIQUES Vol 43 (4), Apr, 1998.
Miller, G. E., Dopp, J. M., Myers, H. F., Stevens, S. Y., & Fahey, J. L. (1999). Psychosocial predictors of natural killer cell mobilization during marital conflict: Health Psychology Vol 18(3) May 1999, 262-271.
Mills, C. M., & Keil, F. C. (2005). The Development of Cynicism: Psychological Science Vol 16(5) May 2005, 385-390.
Milus, T. B. (2005). A systems model of cynicism based on social theory. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Mino, C. E. (2003). Organizational trust, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment during a change initiative. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Mittag, O., & Maurischat, C. (2004). A comparison of the Cook-Medley Hostility Scale (Ho-scale) and the content scales "cynicism", "anger", and "type A" out of the MMPI-2: On the future assessment of hostility: Zeitschrift fur Medizinische Psychologie Vol 13(1) 2004, 7-12.
Moore, C. D., & Handal, P. J. (1980). Adolescents' MMPI performance, cynicism, estrangement, and personal adjustment as a function of race and sex: Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 36(4) Oct 1980, 932-936.
Moore, D. S. (2000). The development and validation of the Scale of Interpersonal Cynicism. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Mostert, K., & Rothmann, S. (2006). Work-related well-being in the South African Police Service: Journal of Criminal Justice Vol 34(5) Sep-Oct 2006, 479-491.
Moyer, D. M., Gordon, R. M., Ward, J. T., & Burkhardt, B. B. (2006). Characteristics of successful fakers versus unsuccessful fakers: Is empathy, intelligence, or personality associated with faking PTSD on the MMPI-2? : Psychological Reports Vol 99(3) Dec 2006, 745-750.
Murphy, J. W., & Choi, J. M. (2006). Waiting for the Download: A New Metaphor to Describe Education: International Journal of Adolescence and Youth Vol 13(1-2) 2006, 1-11.
Murphy, M. P. (1982). Effects of in-house psychological services on police officer empathy and cynicism: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Naus, F., van Iterson, A., & Roe, R. (2007). Organizational cynicism: Extending the Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Model of employees' responses to adverse conditions in the workplace: Human Relations Vol 60(5) May 2007, 683-718.
Naus, F., van Iterson, A., & Roe, R. A. (2007). Value incongruence, job autonomy, and organization-based self-etseem: A self-based perspective on organization cynicism: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology Vol 16(2) Jun 2007, 195-219.
Nelson, T. L., Palmer, R. F., & Pederson, N. L. (2004). The Metabolic Syndrome Mediates the Relationship Between Cynical Hostility and Cardiovascular Disease: Experimental Aging Research Vol 30(2) Apr-Jun 2004, 163-177.
Newson, D. R., Jr. (2002). Organizational cynicism: The impact on citizenship behavior and organizational change. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Nierenberg, A. A., Ghaemi, S. N., Clancy-Colecchi, K., Rosenbaum, J. F., & et al. (1996). Cynicism, hostility, and suicidal ideation in depressed outpatients: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease Vol 184(10) Oct 1996, 607-610.
O'Connell, B. J., Holzman, H., & Armandi, B. R. (1986). Police cynicism and the modes of adaptation: Journal of Police Science & Administration Vol 14(4) Dec 1986, 307-313.
O'Leary, M. (2003). From paternalism to cynicism: Narratives of a newspaper company: Human Relations Vol 56(6) Jun 2003, 685-704.
Olson, M. B., Krantz, D. S., Kelsey, S. F., Pepine, C. J., Sopko, G., Handberg, E., et al. (2005). Hostility Scores Are Associated With Increased Risk of Cardiovascular Events in Women Undergoing Coronary Angiography: A Report from the NHLBI-Sponsored WISE Study: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 67(4) Jul-Aug 2005, 546-552.
Olson, M. B., Merz, C. N. B., Shaw, L. J., Mankad, S., Reis, S. E., Pohost, G. M., et al. (2004). Hormone Replacement, Race, and Psychological Health in Women: A Report from the NHLBI-Sponsored WISE Study: Journal of Women's Health Vol 13(3) Apr 2004, 325-332.
Owens, W. H., & Capel, W. C. (1979). Cynicism and transience in reactions of Southern blue collar workers to the Carter energy proposal: Psychological Reports Vol 44(3, Pt 2) Jun 1979, 1263-1266.
Palmer, R. F. (1996). Cardiovascular reactivity as a moderator of the relation between cynical hostility and serum lipids: Are there genetic influences? Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Perbandt, K., Hodapp, V., Wendt, T., & Jordan, J. (2006). The Distressed Personality (Type D)--Correlations with Anger, Aggression and Hostility: Psychotherapie Psychosomatik Medizinische Psychologie Vol 56(8) Aug 2006, 310-317.
Peterson, G., & Wrighton, J. M. (1998). Expressions of distrust: Third-party voting and cynicism in government: Political Behavior Vol 20(1) Mar 1998, 17-34.
Pinkleton, B. E., Um, N.-H., & Austin, E. W. (2002). An exploration of the effects of negative political advertising on political decision making: Journal of Advertising Vol 31(1) Spr 2002, 13-25.
Pollay, R. W. (1968). Diagnosis: Organizational deficiencies symptom collegiate cynicism: Personnel Journal 47(8) 1968, 572-574.
Pope, M. K., & Smith, T. W. (1991). Cortisol excretion in high and low cynically hostile men: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 53(4) Jul-Aug 1991, 386-392.
Powch, I. G., & Houston, B. K. (1996). Hostility, anger-in, and cardiovascular reactivity in White women: Health Psychology Vol 15(3) May 1996, 200-208.
Powell, W. (2004). Imagining Harmony: Families in Society Vol 85(2) Apr-Jun 2004, 153-154.
Pugh, S. D., Skarlicki, D. P., & Passell, B. S. (2003). After the fall: Layoff victims' trust and cynicism in re-employment: Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Vol 76(2) Jun 2003, 201-212.
Quinby, L. (1999). Millenial civilization and its discontents: Terminal cynicism, conspiracy mania, and avatarism: Psychohistory Review Vol 27(2) Win 1999, 33-46.
Rafky, D. M. (1975). Police cynicism reconsidered: An application of smallest space analysis: Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal Vol 13(2) Aug 1975, 168-192.
Rafky, D. M., Lawley, T., & Ingram, R. (1976). Are police recruits cynical? : Journal of Police Science & Administration Vol 4(3) Sep 1976, 352-360.
Rask, M. K. (1991). Mediating variables in the cynical hostility and health relationship: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Rasmussen, P. R., Willingham, J. K., & Glover, T. L. (1996). Self-esteem stability, cynical hostility, and cardiovascular reactivity to challenge: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 21(5) Nov 1996, 711-718.
Ray, J. J. (1982). A cluster analytic exploration of what underlies popular social science constructs: Journal of Social Psychology Vol 116(2) Apr 1982, 263-267.
Regan, D. T., & Gilovich, T. (2004). Social psychological research isn't negative, and its message fosters compassion, not cynicism: Comment: Behavioral and Brain Sciences Vol 27(3) Jun 2004, 354-355.
Regoli, B., Crank, J. P., & Rivera, G. F. (1990). The construction and implementation of an alternative measure of police cynicism: Criminal Justice and Behavior Vol 17(4) Dec 1990, 395-409.
Regoli, B., Culbertson, R. G., & Crank, J. P. (1991). Using composite measures in police cynicism research: An application of canonical factor regression: Journal of Quantitative Criminology Vol 7(1) Mar 1991, 41-58.
Regoli, R. M. (1976). The effects of college education on the maintenance of police cynicism: Journal of Police Science & Administration Vol 4(3) Sep 1976, 340-345.
Regoli, R. M. (1976). Toward an understanding of police cynicism: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Reinhardt, A. M., & Gray, R. M. (1972). A social psychological study of attitude change in physicians: Journal of Medical Education Vol 47(2) Feb 1972, 112-117.
Richardsen, A. M., Burke, R. J., & Martinussen, M. (2006). Work and Health Outcomes Among Police Officers: The Mediating Role of Police Cynicism and Engagement: International Journal of Stress Management Vol 13(4) Nov 2006, 555-574.
Roche, W. P., III, Scheetz, A. P., Dane, F. C., Parish, D. C., & O'Shea, J. T. (2003). Medical Students' Attitudes in a PBL Curriculum: Trust, Altruism, and Cynicism: Academic Medicine Vol 78(4) Apr 2003, 398-402.
Rosenbaum, M. S., & Kuntze, R. (2003). The relationship between anomie and unethical retail disposition: Psychology & Marketing Vol 20(12) Dec 2003, 1067-1093.
Rosenberg, E. L., Ekman, P., & Blumenthal, J. A. (1998). Facial expression and the affective component of cynical hostility in male coronary heart disease patients: Health Psychology Vol 17(4) Jul 1998, 376-380.
Rotfeld, H. J. (2005). The cynical use of marketing to the unwitting consumer: Journal of Consumer Marketing Vol 22(2) 2005, 60-61.
Rush, J. P. (1991). The relation of cynicism to role conflict, worker alienation, and role orientation among Alabama juvenile probation officers: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Salanova, M., Grau, R. M., Cifre, E., & Llorens, S. (2000). Computer training, frequency of usage and burnout: The moderating role of computer self-efficacy: Computers in Human Behavior Vol 16(6) Nov 2000, 575-590.
Salanova, M., Llorens, S., Garcia-Renedo, M., Raul, B., Breso, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2005). Towards a Four-Dimensional Model of Burnout: A Multigroup Factor-Analytic Study Including Depersonalization and Cynicism: Educational and Psychological Measurement Vol 65(5) Oct 2005, 807-819.
Sampson, R. J., & Bartusch, D. J. (1998). Legal cynicism and (subcultural?) tolerance of deviance: The neighborhood context of racial differences: Law & Society Review Vol 32(4) 1998, 777-804.
Schaible, L. M. (2006). The impact of emotional labor, value dissonance, and occupational identity on police officers' levels of cynicism and burnout. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Salanova, M. (2007). Efficacy or inefficacy, that's the question: Burnout and work engagement, and their relationships with efficacy beliefs: Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal Vol 20(2) Jun 2007, 177-196.
Schudson, M. (1999). Social origins of press cynicism in portraying politics: American Behavioral Scientist Vol 42(6) Mar 1999, 998-1008.
Seifert, M. K. (1995). The relationship of role problems, work trauma, cynicism, social support, and spiritual support to the physical and mental health, work performance, and absenteeism of correctional officers. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Shainess, N. (1984). Shakespeare's "Timon of Athens": The progress from naivete to cynicism: Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis & Dynamic Psychiatry Vol 12(3) Jul 1984, 425-440.
Shapiro, D., Goldstein, I. B., & Jamner, L. D. (1996). Effects of cynical hostility, anger out, anxiety, and defensiveness on ambulatory blood pressure in Black and White college students: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 58(4) Jul-Aug 1996, 354-364.
Shelton, C. J. (1993). A construct validity study of the cynicism scale of the MMPI-2: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Shirley, R. G., & Gruner, C. R. (1989). Self-perceived cynicism, sex, and reaction to gender-related satire: Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 68(3, Pt 2) Jun 1989, 1048-1050.
Siegman, A. W., Townsend, S. T., Blumenthal, R. S., Sorkin, J. D., & Civelek, A. C. (1998). Dimensions of anger and CHD in men and women: Self-ratings versus spouse ratings: Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 21(4) Aug 1998, 315-336.
Singelis, T. M., Hubbard, C., Her, P., & An, S. (2003). Convergent validation of the Social Axioms Survey: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 34(2) Jan 2003, 269-282.
Smith, T. W., & Allred, K. D. (1989). Blood-pressure responses during social interaction in high- and low-cynically hostile males: Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 12(2) Apr 1989, 135-143.
Smith, T. W., & Brown, P. C. (1991). Cynical hostility, attempts to exert social control, and cardiovascular reactivity in married couples: Journal of Behavioral Medicine Vol 14(6) Dec 1991, 581-592.
Smith, T. W., McGonigle, M., Turner, C. W., Ford, M. H., & et al. (1991). Cynical hostility in adult male twins: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 53(6) Nov-Dec 1991, 684-692.
Smith, T. W., & Pope, M. K. (1990). Cynical hostility as a health risk: Current status and future directions: Journal of Social Behavior & Personality Vol 5(1) 1990, 77-88.
Smith, T. W., & Pope, M. K. (1991). Cynical hostility as a health risk: Current status and future directions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Smith, T. W., Pope, M. K., Sanders, J. D., Allred, K. D., & et al. (1988). Cynical hostility at home and work: Psychosocial vulnerability across domains: Journal of Research in Personality Vol 22(4) Dec 1988, 525-548.
Sobo, E. J., Zimet, G. D., Zimmerman, T., & Cecil, H. (1997). Doubting the experts: AIDS misconceptions among runaway adolescents: Human Organization Vol 56(3) Fal 1997, 311-320.
Song, Y. H., Terao, T., & Nakamura, J. (2007). Type A behaviour pattern is associated with cynicism and low self-acceptance in medical students: Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress Vol 23(5) Dec 2007, 323-329.
Southwell, P. L. (1995). "Throwing the rascals out" versus "throwing in the towel": Alienation, support for term limits, and congressional voting behavior: Social Science Quarterly Vol 76(4) Dec 1995, 741-748.
Southwell, P. L., & Pirch, K. D. (2003). Political Cynicism and the Mobilization of Black Voters: Social Science Quarterly Vol 84(4) Dec 2003, 906-917.
Stanley, D. J., Meyer, J. P., & Topolnytsky, L. (2005). Employee Cynicism and Resistance to Organizational Change: Journal of Business and Psychology Vol 19(4) Jun 2005, 429-459.
Stern, D., Stone, J. R., Hopkins, C., & McMillion, M. (1990). Quality of students' work experience and orientation toward work: Youth & Society Vol 22(2) Dec 1990, 263-282.
Stewart, A. (2002). Hope and despair: Making sense of politics in the twenty-first century: British Journal of Sociology Vol 53(3) Sep 2002, 467-490.
Stokes, J. P. (1990). Cynicism: Causes, Consequences, and Antidotes: PsycCRITIQUES Vol 35 (11), Nov, 1990.
Storberg-Walker, J. (2006). Invited Reaction to Postfeedback Development Perceptions: Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior: Human Resource Development Quarterly Vol 17(3) Fal 2006, 269-278.
Tan, S.-J., & Tan, K.-L. (2007). Antecedents and consequences of skepticism toward health claims: An empirical investigation of Singaporean consumers: Journal of Marketing Communications Vol 13(1) Mar 2007, 59-82.
Tedesco, J. C. (2002). Televised political advertising effects: Evaluating responses during the 2000 Robb-Allen Senatorial election: Journal of Advertising Vol 31(1) Spr 2002, 37-48.
Thomas-Riddle, F. R. (2000). The relationship between life stress, work stress, and traumatic stress and burnout and cynicism in police officers. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Thompson, R. C., Bailey, L. L., Joseph, K. M., Worley, J. A., & Williams, C. A. (1999). Organizational change: Effects of fairness perceptions on cynicism: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Reports DOT-FAA-AM-99-27 Nov 1999, 9 p.
Thompson, R. C., Joseph, K. M., Bailey, L. L., Worley, J. A., & Williams, C. A. (2000). Organizational change: An assessment of trust and cynicism: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Reports DOT-FAA-AM-00-14 May 2000, 11p.
Toch, H., & Grant, J. D. (1982). Cynicism: The human equation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Toppinen-Tanner, S., Kalimo, R., & Mutanen, P. (2002). The process of burnout in white-collar and blue-collar jobs: Eight-year prospective study of exhaustion: Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol 23(5) Aug 2002, 555-570.
Tsfati, Y. (2003). Does Audience Skepticism of the Media Matter in Agenda Setting? : Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media Vol 47(2) Jun 2003, 157-176.
Turner, L. J. (2004). Police personality: A comparative analysis of authoritarianism, aggression, and cynicism. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Twenge, J. M., Zhang, L., & Im, C. (2004). It's beyond my control: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of increasing externality in locus of control, 1960-2002: Personality and Social Psychology Review Vol 8(3) 2004, 308-319.
Ulmer, J. T. (1992). Occupational socialization and cynicism toward prison administration: Social Science Journal Vol 29(4) 1992, 423-443.
Valentine, S., & Elias, R. Z. (2005). Perceived corporate ethical values and individual cynicism of working students: Psychological Reports Vol 97(3) Dec 2005, 832-834.
Violani, J. M., & Marshall, J. R. (1983). The police stress process: Journal of Police Science & Administration Vol 11(4) Dec 1983, 389-394.
Wang, C.-y., Wang, L.-s., Liu, Q., & Cheng, L. (2007). Relationship of police's job burnout with correlative influencing factors: Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 15(4) Aug 2007, 401-402, 411.
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Cynicism about organizational change: Measurement, antecedents, and correlates: Group & Organization Management Vol 25(2) Jun 2000, 132-153.
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Austin, J. T. (2004). Cynicism about organizational change: An attribution process perspective: Psychological Reports Vol 94(3,Pt2) Jun 2004, 1421-1434.
Watkins, P. L., Ward, C. H., Southard, D. R., & Fisher, E. B. (1992). The Type A belief system: Relationships to hostility, social support, and life stress: Behavioral Medicine Vol 18(1) Spr 1992, 27-32.
Weidner, G., Rice, T., Knox, S. S., Ellison, C., Province, M. A., Rao, D. C., et al. (2000). Familial resemblance for hostility: The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study: Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 62(2) Mar-Apr 2000, 197-204.
Weinstock, S. A. (1964). Some factors that retard or accelerate the rate of acculturation, with special reference to Hungarian immigrants: Human Relations 17(4) 1964, 321-340.
Weisse, C. (1998). Discontents: Revista de Psicoanalisis Vol 55(4) Oct-Dec 1998, 785-810.
Wilkinson, M. S. (1997). Hostility, cynicism, anger and aggression as predictors of the presence and severity of coronary artery disease. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
Williams, R. B., & Williams, V. P. (2001). Managing hostile thoughts, feelings, and actions: The LifeSkills approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Wilt, G. M., & Bannon, J. D. (1976). Cynicism or realism: A critique of Niederhoffer's research into police attitudes: Journal of Police Science & Administration Vol 4(1) Mar 1976, 38-45.
Wood, G., & Callaghan, M. (2003). Communicating the Ethos of Codes of Ethics in Corporate Australia, 1995-2001: Whose Rights, Whose Responsibilities? : Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal Vol 15(4) Dec 2003, 209-221.
Wu, C., Neubert, M. J., & Yi, X. (2007). Transformational leadership, cohesion perceptions, and employee cynicism about organizational change: The mediating role of justice perceptions: Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Vol 43(3) Sep 2007, 327-351.
Yedidia, M. J., Berry, C. A., & Barr, J. K. (1996). Changes in physicians' attitudes toward AIDS during residency training: A longitudinal study of medical school graduates: Journal of Health and Social Behavior Vol 37(2) Jun 1996, 179-191.
Yoon, K., Pinkleton, B. E., & Ko, W. (2005). Effects of Negative Political Advertising on Voting Intention: An Exploration of the Roles of Involvement and Source Credibility in the Development of Voter Cynicism: Journal of Marketing Communications Vol 11(2) Jun 2005, 95-112.
Zacker, J. W. (1971). The effects of experiential training upon empathy, interpersonal sensitivity, cynicism and alienation in police recruits: Dissertation Abstracts International Vol.
Zoloto, J. A. (1980). Police cynicism and attitudes toward people: A comparative study of police and teachers in urban and suburban areas: Dissertation Abstracts International.
Zwaal, C., Prkachin, K. M., Husted, J., & Stones, M. (2003). Components of hostility and verbal communication of emotion: Psychology & Health Vol 18(2) 2003, 261-273.

External links

Cynicism / Conspiracism from Project Worldview
The scandal of the cynics^{[dead link – history]}

Is it worse to be cynical or jaded?

This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).

[1] ttp://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/ancient/athens/Cynicism.htm

[2] ttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050526092240.htm

[1]

[2]