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[[Image:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found from [[Sarnath]], near [[Varanasi]].]]
  
 
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[[Image:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found from [[Sarnath]], near [[Varanasi]].]]
 
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'''Buddhism ''' is a set of teachings often described as a [[religion]].<ref>''Chambers Dictionary'', 2006; ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2003; ''New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions'', 1998; ''Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification''; [http://www.adherents.com]</ref> However, some definitions of religion would exclude it, or some forms of it. Some say it is a body of [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophies]] influenced by the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as [[Gautama Buddha]].<ref> see, for example, [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna]]</ref> Others say it is teachings to guide one to directly experiencing [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]].<ref>For example: Thich Nhat Hanh, ''Old Path White Clouds'' For example: Dorothy Figen, ''Is Buddhism a Religion?'' http://www.buddhistinformation.com/is_buddhism_a_religion1.htm</ref><ref> For example: Narada Thera, ''Buddhism in a Nutshell,'' http://www.buddhanet.net/nutshell03.htm</ref> Many recent scholars regard it as a plurality rather than a single entity.<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations of Buddhism'',page 2; Robinson ''et al.'', ''Buddhist Religions'', 5th edn, Wadsworth, Belmont, California, 2004</ref> Buddhism is also known as [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Buddha Dharma or Dhamma]], which means roughly the "teachings of the Awakened One" in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]], languages of ancient [[Buddhist texts]]. Buddhism began around [[5th century BC]] with the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]], who was born in Lumbini, Nepal and is hereafter referred to as "the Buddha".
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'''Buddhism''' is a religion and philosophy based on the [[Buddhadharma#In Buddhism|teachings]] of the [[Buddha]], [[Gautama Buddha|Siddh&#257;rtha Gautama]], who lived in Northern India between 563 BC and 483 BC. Buddhism spread throughout the ancient Indian sub-continent in the five centuries following his death. It continued to spread into Central Asia Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Eastern Europe over the next two millennia. Adherents of Buddhism are called '''[[Buddhists]]'''.
  
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===Origin===
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''For a more extensive description, see [[Gautama Buddha]].''
   
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Gautama, whose personal name according to later sources was Siddhartha, was born in the city of [[Lumbini]]<ref>For instance, see the [[UNESCO]] webpage entitled, [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666 "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha"]. See also Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor [[Ashoka]] determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."</ref> and raised in [[Kapilavastu]], near the modern town of Taulihawa, Nepal.<ref>For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain&mdash;a ''rājan''&mdash;in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) on what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources</ref> The traditional story of his life is as follows; little of this can be regarded as established historical fact. Born a prince, his father, King [[Suddhodana]], was supposedly visited by a wise man shortly after Siddhartha was born and told that Siddhartha would either become a great king ([[chakravartin]]) or a holy man ([[Sadhu]]). Determined to make Siddhartha a king, the father tried to shield his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Despite his father's efforts, at the age of 29, he discovered the suffering of his people, first through an encounter with an elderly man. On subsequent trips outside the palace, he encountered various sufferings such as a [[disease]]d man, a decaying [[corpse]], and a monk or an [[ascetic]]. These are often termed 'The Four Sights.'<ref>http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights ''"On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights brought home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death...on his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."''</ref>
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There is controversy among scholars of religion concerning whether Buddhism constitutes a [[religion]], discussions which closely follow the problem of ''"what is religion?"'' within [[religious studies]]. In any case, Buddhism is a major movement, with approximately [[Buddhism by country|700 million followers]]. There are estimates which are double that {{citation needed}}, though accurate demographic data are difficult to acquire due to the fact that many Buddhists live in nations with oppressive governments, and because of the growing number of Buddhists in the West.
  
   
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Gautama, deeply depressed by these four sights, sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Gautama escaped his palace, leaving behind this royal life to become a [[mendicant]]. For a time on his spiritual quest, Buddha ''"experimented with extreme asceticism, which at that time was seen as a powerful spiritual practice...such as fasting, holding the breath, and exposure of the body to pain...he found, however, that these ascetic practices brought no genuine spiritual benefits and in fact, being based on self-hatred, that they were counterproductive."''<ref>http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, ''The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening''</ref>
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The aim of Buddhist practice is to end the cycle of [[Wheel of Life|rebirth]] called [[samsara]] (Pāli, Sanskrit), by awakening the practitioner to the realization of true reality, the achievement of liberation ([[nirvana]]). To achieve this, one should purify and train the mind and act according to the laws of [[karma]], of cause and effect: perform positive actions, and positive results will follow. Accordingly, negative deeds have negative consequences. Eventually, however, (from the [[Mahayana]] viewpoint {{citation needed}}), the conditioned realm of karma needs to be transcended altogether in the attainment of the ineffably blissful and utterly liberated state of [[Nirvana]] and [[Bodhi|awakening]]. Some posit that the state of [[Great Perfection]] transcends both [[Samsara]] and [[Nirvana]].
  
   
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After abandoning asceticism and concentrating instead upon [[meditation]] and, according to some sources, [[Anapanasati]] (awareness of breathing in and out), Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl and then, sitting under a pipal tree or [[Sacred fig]], (''Ficus religiosa''), now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya,<ref>see: http://web.archive.org/20040629075505/www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html ''The Bodhi Tree''</ref><ref>http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm ''Bodhi leaf''</ref> he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. His five companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days meditating, at the age of 35, he attained [[bodhi]], also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. After his attainment of bodhi he was known as [[Buddha]] or [[Gautama Buddha]] and spent the rest of his life teaching his insights ([[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]).<ref>Skilton, ''Concise'', p. 25</ref> According to scholars, he lived around the fifth century [[BCE]], but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.<ref>Cousins, ''Dating''.</ref> He died around the age of 80 in [[Kushinagara]] (Pali Kusinara) (India).<ref>''"the reputed place of Buddha's death and cremation,"''[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-312979/Kasia Encyclopedia Britannica, ''Kusinagara'']</ref>
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Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (''[[sila]]''), meditative concentration (''[[samadhi]]''), and wisdom (''[[prajna|prajñ&#257;]]'').
  
   
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===Divisions===
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While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (indeed, many are discussed in [[Buddhist scripture]]), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgment to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual.
  
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All supernatural beings, as living entities, are a part of the six-part reincarnation cycle.
  
   
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The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars<ref>(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); <p>Gethin (1998), pp. 1&ndash;2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."
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Buddhism is usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. The followers of Theravada Buddhism take the scriptures known as the "Pali suttas, [[vinaya]] and [[abhidhamma]]" (the Tipitaka/[[Tripitaka]]) as [[normative]] and authoritative; the followers of Mahayana Buddhism base themselves chiefly on the "Mahayana sutras" ([[sutra]]/[[sutta]] is generally a scripture in which the Buddha himself gives instruction), as well as on various versions of the vinaya. Whereas the Theravadins (followers of Theravada Buddhism) adhere solely to the Pali suttas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahayana accept both the suttas and the Mahayana sutras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, aimed at different types of person and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravadins, the Mahayana sutras are deviant works of poetic fiction, not issuing from the Buddha himself; for the Mahayanists, the Pali suttas (or "[[agamas]]", as such scriptures are also known) do indeed contain basic, foundational (or provisional) teachings of the Buddha, while for those same Mahayanists the Mahayana sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for the more aspirational [[Bodhisattvas]]. Hence the name '''Mahayana''', lit, ''the Greater Vehicle'', which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those more developed. Some Mahayanists irreverently refer to Theravada as '''Hinayana''', literally ''the Lesser Vehicle''. This term is now widely seen as either inaccurate or derogatory, although it does actually appear in the famous Mahayana scripture, the [[Lotus Sutra]] (amongst others). Other adherents of [[Mahayana]] use the term [[Hinayana]] in a respectful way referring to several historical [[Hinayana]] schools that may or may not include the currently existing [[Theravada]].
  
   
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<p>Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West."</ref> divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: '''[[Theravada]]''', '''[[East Asian Buddhism]]''' and '''[[Tibetan Buddhism]]'''.
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An alternative categorisation of Buddhism follows the major languages of the Buddhist canon, which exists in [[Pali]], [[Tibetan]], and [[China|Chinese]] collections. (Some texts exist in original [[Sanskrit]].) This would serve to divide East Asian [[Mahayana]] Buddhism from the [[Vajrayana]] form of [[Mahayana]] found in [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Japan]] ([[Tendai]]), Northern [[India]] ([[Sikkim]] & [[Ladakh]]/[[Leh]]), and [[Mongolia]]. In most works [[Zen]] is set out as a distinct category; this is due to the fact that some consider [[Zen]] being a unique product of [[Japan]] and the island culture: fusion of [[Bushi]] ideas, [[Daoist]] philosophy, and [[Theravada]] Buddhism. Others point to [[Chinese]] [[Chan]] Buddhism as the origin of [[Zen]].
  
   
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An alternative scheme used by some scholars<ref>Smith, ''Buddhism''; Juergensmeyer, ''Oxford Handbook''. In addition, Gethin, ''Foundations'', pp. 1&ndash;5, ''could'' be used to support the use of this bipartite classification scheme to the degree that he identifies that both East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism have a "general outlook" of the Mahāyāna tradition, although Tibetan Buddhism's "specific orientation" is [[Tantric Buddhism]].</ref>{{page number}} has two divisions, [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]]. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tibetan Buddhism |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company | date=2004 |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tibetan%20buddhism | accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref>
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==What is a Buddha?==
  
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Some scholars<ref>See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff</ref> use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.
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[[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]]
  
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The term "[[Buddha]]" is a word in ancient [[India|Indian]] languages including [[Pali|P&#257;li]] and [[Sanskrit]] which means "one who has awakened". It is derived from the verbal root "budh", meaning "to awaken" or "to be enlightened", and "to comprehend". It is written in [[Devanagari]] script as {{lang-hi|बुद्ध}} and pronounced as /bυd-dhə/, where both "d" and "dh" are [[dental consonant|dental]]s, and "dh" is an [[aspirated]] stop.
  
   
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===Buddhism today===
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The word "Buddha" denotes not just the historical Buddha [[Shakyamuni]] or [[Siddhartha Gautama]] who lived some 2,500 years ago, but also a type of person, of which there have been many throughout the course of time. (As an analogy, the term "president" refers not just to one person, but to everyone who has ever held the office of presidency.) The historical Buddha is one member of the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which is thought to extend beyond history into the past and into the indefinite future.
  
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Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength. While [[Buddhism by country|estimates of the number of Buddhist followers]] range from 230 to 500 million worldwide, most estimates are around 350 million,<ref name=adherants>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Buddhism | title=Major Religions Ranked By Size | author= Adherants.com | accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> or 310 million.<ref>{{cite book|first=Judy|last=Jones|coauthors=William Wilson|title=An Incomplete Education|publisher=Ballantine Books|year=2006|edition=3rd edition|id=ISBN 978-0-7394-7582-9|pages=473|chapter=Religion}}</ref> However, [[Buddhism by country|estimates]] are uncertain for several countries. According to one analysis,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Garfinkel, Perry | title = Buddha Rising | journal = National Geographic | date= December 2005 | pages = 88-109}}</ref> Buddhism is the fourth-largest [[major world religions|religion in the world]] behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism]]. The monks' order ([[Sangha]]), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.
   
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[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]
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Shakyamuni Buddha did not generally claim any divine status for himself - although in some Mahayana sutras, he does declare that he is the "god above the gods - superior to all the gods" (''Lalitavistara Sutra''); he also did not say that he was inspired by a god or gods. He is instead [[Dharma]] (Ultimate Truth - variously construed by Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism) made manifest. A Buddha is anyone who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, liberated himself from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth, has eradicated all negative qualities and developed all positive qualities, possibly including [[omniscience]]. (Buddhas do not claim to be [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], unlike the God of [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] or [[Judaism]].) All sentient beings can free themselves from suffering as Gautama did, regardless of [[age]], [[Biological sex|sex]], or [[caste]]. The Mahayana and Theravada schools of thought differ on whether this includes animals as well; Mayahana Buddhism holds that, despite the incredible difficulties involved, animals can achieve [[bodhi|enlightenment]]. In both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, however, the Buddha is viewed as one who, in past lives, had in fact been born as an animal at various times during his progress through Samsara. But only as a human being was he able to achieve full Awakening ([[bodhi]]).
  
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*[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Burma]]. Also the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in [[India]] (inspired by [[B. R. Ambedkar]]) practices Theravada.
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*East Asian forms of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
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*Tibetan Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in the ethnically [[Tibet|Tibetan-dominant]] regions of [[China]] and the surrounding areas in [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], and the [[Russian Federation]]
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*Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.
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At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]])
   
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See also [[Buddhism by country]]
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In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha (transcending his mere physical form) is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable, eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or "Enlightenment" ([[bodhi]]). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahayana Buddhism as One in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma.
  
   
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==Some teachings==
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The principles by which a person can achieve [[bodhi|enlightenment]] are known as the [[Buddhadharma#In Buddhism|Buddhadharma]], or simply—the [[Dharma#In Buddhism|Dharma]], meaning (in this context) "law, doctrine, or truth".
  
   
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Other teachings can be found in the sections below on history of Indian Buddhism and the main traditions, and also in separate articles on [[Zen]], [[Pure Land]], [[Nichiren]], [[Shingon]]. (Also, [[Falun Gong]] is classified sometimes as a form of Buddhism<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 2, page 10</ref>, sometimes as a form of Chinese religion<ref>[http://www.adherents.com]</ref>).
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==Origins==
  
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[[Image:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Great [[Sanchi]] [[Stupa]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]].]]
  
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As with any history so old, there are many different stories of how [[Siddhartha Gautama|Siddhārtha Gautama]] ([[Sanskrit]] &#2360;&#2367;&#2342;&#2381;&#2343;&#2366;&#2352;&#2381;&#2341; &#2327;&#2380;&#2340;&#2350;, pronounced as "sιd-dhα:rthə gautəmə"; in [[Pali|Pāli]], ''Siddhattha Gautama'') made his way to enlightenment.
  
   
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In Theravada Buddhism, any person who has awakened from the "sleep of ignorance" (by directly realizing the true nature of [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]]), without instruction, and teaches it to others is called a [[Buddha]], while those who achieve realisations but do not teach others are called [[Pratyekabuddha|paccekabuddha]]s. All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too. If a person achieves this awakening, he or she is called an [[arahant]]. [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]], the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas before or after him.<ref>See for example: http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1469959 ''Buddhas of the past and future''</ref> His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of awakening, also called [[liberation]], or [[Nirvana]].
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The Theravada tradition says he was born around [[566 BC|566 BCE]]. One of their legends says that his birthplace is [[Lumbini]] in the Shākya state, one of a small group of old oligarchic republics in what is now Southern [[Nepal]] at the border with India. {{citation needed}} His father was the Shākya king Śuddhodana and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, and was spared all hardship. However, from a historical point of view it is understood that Śuddhodana was not a king, but a chief, as the Shākyas were a sort of confederation and had no kings. Since Siddhārtha belonged to the Shākya clan, he came to be known as '''Shākyamunī''' ("chief of the Shākyas").
  
   
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One of the teachings ascribed to the Buddha regarding the holy life and the goal of liberation is constituted by the [[Buddhism#The Four Noble Truths|"The Four Noble Truths"]], which focus on [[dukkha]], a term that refers to [[suffering]] or the unhappiness ultimately characteristic of unawakened, worldly life. According to the interpretation of earlier Western scholars, followed by many modern Theravadins, the Four Noble Truths regarding suffering state what is its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation.<ref>See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html ''The Four Noble Truths''</ref> This way to the cessation of suffering is called [[Buddhism#The Noble Eightfold Path|"The Noble Eightfold Path"]]. However, according to at least some recent scholars,<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 60</ref> the so-called truths are not statements at all, but "things": suffering and the rest.
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Siddhartha's birth was an auspicious one. His mother dreamt one night that an elephant with six tusks and a head the colour of rubies came down from the highest heaven and entered her womb on the right side. Eight Brahmins told her husband the child would be holy and achieve perfect wisdom. Later she entered the garden of Lumbini with her attendants, and walked beneath the sala tree, which bent down. The queen took hold of the branch and looked up to the heavens. At that moment Siddhartha was born out of her side. He immediateley took seven steps towards each quarter of heaven, and at each step a lotus flower sprung up. He then declared he would have no more births, that this was his last body and he would pluck out be the roots sorrow caused by birth and death.
  
   
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Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. Few valid generalizations are possible about all Buddhists.<ref>{{cite book| author= Gombrich, Richard F. | title = Theravada Buddhism | edition = 2nd | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1988 | pages = 2 | isbn = 0710213190}}</ref>
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Most traditions believe that the Buddha's mother passed away at his birth or a few days later. The legend says that a seer predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These ''four sights'' led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession since beginningless time. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privilege, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death.
 
   
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===Bodhi===
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[[India]]n holy men (called [[sadhu|sādhu]]s), in those days just as today, often engaged in a variety of [[ascetic]] practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the [[atman|ātman]] (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "[[soul]]" became free from the cycle of rebirth with its pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no solution to end all Suffering and so, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing.
 
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[[Image:StandingBuddha.JPG|thumb|[[Gautama Buddha]], [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]].]]
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{{main|Bodhi}}
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'''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] (बॊधि), lit. ''awakening'') is a term applied in Theravada Buddhism to the experience of Awakening of [[Arahants]], including Buddhas. When used in a generic sense, a [[buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through (lifetimes of) spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[Bodhi]], which literally means "awakening", but is more commonly called "enlightenment".
   
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In [[Early Buddhism]], Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to [[Nirvana]], using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed),<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> dosa (hate)<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> and moha (delusion).<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the status of nirvana was downgraded, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana, and that one needed the additional and higher attainment of Bodhi to eradicate delusion.<ref>''An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67</ref> The result is that according to Mahayana Buddhism, the [[Arahant]] attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Bodhisattva attains Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, ''and'' delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called [[Anagami]].
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Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the [[Bodhi tree]]) and set to [[meditation|meditating]]. He developed a new way of meditating, which began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, after six years since he began his quest in search of a solution to an end of Suffering, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]], and became a [[Buddha]]. This place is in the state of Bihar in India.
 
   
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Bodhi is attained when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. Although the earliest sources do not have any mention of Paramitas,<ref>‘It is evident that the Hinayanists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it, incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of paramitas. This was effected by the production of new literature: the Jatakas and Avadanas.' Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, p. 251. The term 'Semi-Mahayana' occurs here as a subtitle</ref><ref>‘[the Theravadins’] early literature did not refer to the paramitas.’ Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, Dutt, p. 228</ref> the later traditions of Theravada and Mahayana state that one also needs to fulfill the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the compulsive cycle of [[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]: birth, suffering, death and rebirth, and attains the "highest happiness" (Nirvana, as described in the [[Dhammapada]]). Belief in self ([[Atman (Buddhism)|ātmān]], Pāli attā) has also been extinguished as part of the eradication of delusion, and Bodhi thus implies understanding of [[anatta|anattā]] (Sanskrit: Anatman).
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[[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma]], [[Kanishka casket]], dated to [[127|127 CE]], [[British Museum]].]]
 
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According to one of the stories in the [[Āyācana Sutta]] (''Samyutta Nikaya'' VI.1), a scripture found in the [[Pāli]] and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the Dharma. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they wouldn't be able to see the true Dharma which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. Two gods, [[Brahma]] Sahampati and [[Indra]], interceded, and asked that the Buddha teach the Dharma to the world, saying, "There will be those who will understand the Dharma". With his great [[compassion]], the Buddha agreed to become a teacher. At the Deer Park near [[Benares]] in northern India he set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he sought for enlightenment before. They, together with Buddha, formed the first [[sangha]], the company of Buddhist monks.
  
   
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Some Mahayana sources contain the idea that a bodhisattva, which in other Mahayana sources is someone on the path to Buddhahood, deliberately refrains from becoming a Buddha in order to help others.
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In other versions of his life-story, the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. {{citation needed}}
  
   
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According to a saying in one of the [[Mahayana sutras]], if a person does not aim for Bodhi, one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref name=norbu>{{cite book| title = The Crystal and the Way of Light: Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen| author = Norbu, Chogyal Namkhai| editors = Shane, John | year= 2000|pages= 164 |publisher = Snow Lion Publications | isbn = 1559391359}}</ref><!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.-->
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The state of Shākya, where he was born, was an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. Therefore, it is believed that the Buddha's father was not a king in the sense of an absolute ruler, but rather an influential tribal figure. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.
 
   
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===Middle Way===
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It has also been suggested that the influence of [[Jain]] culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar may have given rise to Buddhism. {{citation needed}} Buddhist scriptures describe various penances (''tapas'') undertaken by Gautama Siddhartha which appear identical to Jain penances (e.g., cupping the hands to consume alms, plucking of hair, the penance by five fires, etc. ). These penances were later renounced by Gautama as activities not leading to [[Nirvana]] (Final Liberation). Buddhist writings reflect that Jainism was an already established faith &mdash; rather than a newly founded or reformist one &mdash; by the time Buddha lived. Early Buddhists posited the existence of 24 previous Buddhas (Buddhas who walked the earth prior to Siddhartha Gautama, as established in the Buddhist text ''Mahavanso'' 1:100:1 among others) many of whose names are identical to those of the 24 Jain ''Tirthankaras'' and other traditional Jain figures. Suggesting close correlations between the teachings of the Jains and Buddha, the ''Majjhima Nikaya'' relates dialogues between Buddha and several members of the ''Nigantha'' (Jain) community, sometimes resulting in the latter's acceptance of Buddha as a teacher. (See also ''[[Jainism]]'' and ''[[Jainism and Buddhism]]'')
  
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{{main|Middle Way}}
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An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' has several definitions:
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#It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
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#It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain [[metaphysical]] views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.<ref>Kohn, ''Shambhala'', pp. 131, 143</ref>
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#An explanation of the state of [[nirvana]] and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see [[Seongcheol]]).
   
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===Refuge in the Three Jewels===
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In many instances, both philosophies continue to share similar Prakrit terminology for important themes and teachings but may differ significantly in interpretation and meaning. This method of teaching adopted by the Buddha points to the pragmatic aspect of Buddha's style of teaching wherein the Buddha uses words and terms that are familiar to the audience instead of introducing new and complex technical jargon. In this way, Buddhism sought to appeal to a broad audience.
  
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[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha|the Buddha]] with [[Dharmachakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]
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{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}
   
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Traditionally, the first step in most forms of Buddhism requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] ([[Sanskrit]]: त्रिरत्न '''Triratna''' or रत्नत्रय '''Ratna-traya''', [[Pāli|Pali]]: '''Tiratana''').<ref>{{cite web
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==Principles of Buddhism==
  
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|title=Refuge
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===The Three Marks of Existence===
  
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|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi
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According to the Buddhist tradition, all phenomena ([[dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the ''Dharma seals'', that is [[anicca]] (impermanence), [[dukkha]] (suffering) and [[Anatta]] (no self).
  
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|author= Bhikku, Thanissaro
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|year=2001
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|work=An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha
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|publisher=Access to Insight}}</ref> Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the [[lama]]. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion in Buddhism.
   
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The '''Three Jewels''' are:
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====Anicca====
  
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* The '''[[Buddha]]''' (i.e.,''Awakened One''). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
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{{main|Anicca}}
  
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* The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
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* The '''[[Sangha]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]])&mdash;one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.
   
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According to the scriptures, [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit श्रद्धा '''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]] (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
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(P&#257;li; Sanskrit: anitya): All ''compounded phenomena'' (things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. (Practically) everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the ''thing'' itself is constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
  
   
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In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a being beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself.
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The important point here is that phenomena arise and cease according to (complex) conditions and not according to our whims and fancy.
 
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While we have limited ability to effect change to our possessions and surroundings,
 
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experience tells us that our feeble attempts are no guarantee that the results of our efforts
  
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will be to our likings. More often than not, the results fall short of our expectations.
  
   
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Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.
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In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, a caveat is added: one should indeed always meditate on the impermanence and changefulness of compounded structures and phenomena, but one must guard against extending this to the realm of [[Nirvana]], where impermanence holds no sway and eternity alone obtains. To see [[Nirvana]] or the [[Buddha]] (in his ultimate [[Dharmakaya]] nature) as impermanent would be to indulge in "perverted [[Dharma]]" and would be seriously to go astray, according to the [[Buddha]]'s final [[Mahayana]] doctrines. Other schools of Buddhism, however, feel uneasy with such a teaching.
  
   
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====Dukkha====
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====The Four Noble Truths====
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{{main|Dukkha}}
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{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}
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According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists [[Dukkha]], which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by [[tanha|desire]] and it can be brought to cessation by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: {{unicode|Āryāṣṭāṅgamārgaḥ }}, Pāli: {{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: {{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}), or the "[[Four Noble Truths]]".
   
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# There is suffering
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: ''Whatever is impermanent is subject to change. Whatever is subject to change is subject to suffering.''
  
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# There is a cause of suffering &mdash; [[Tanha|craving]]
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: &mdash; The Buddha
  
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# There is the cessation of suffering
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# There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering &mdash; the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]
   
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According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] after his enlightenment,<ref>{{cite book|chapter =Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta |title= The Book of Protection | author = Thera, Piyadassi |chapterurl=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.piya.html|year = 1999 | publisher= Buddhist Publication Society}} In the Buddha's first sermon, the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]], he talks about the Middle Way, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths.</ref> which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised [[austerities]]. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time. The early teaching<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', p. 47</ref> and the traditional understanding in the Theravada<ref name=penguin>{{cite book| title = The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions |author = Hinnels, John R. | publisher = Penguin Books | location = London | year = 1998 | isbn = 0140514805}},pages 393f</ref> is that these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 92</ref>
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Striving for what we desire, we may experience stress and suffering &mdash; ''dukkha'' (P&#257;li; Sanskrit: du&#7717;kha). Getting what we desired, we may find delight and happiness. Soon after, the novelty may wear out and we may get bored with it. Boredom is a form of dissatisfaction (or suffering) and to escape from it, we divert ourselves from such boredom by indulging in a pursuit of new forms of pleasure. Sometimes not willing to relinquish objects that we are already disinterested in, we start to collect and amass possessions instead of sharing with others who may have better use in it than we do. Boredom is a result of change. Change of our interest in that object of desire that so captivated us in the first place.
  
   
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====The Noble Eightfold Path====
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If we do not get bored already, then change may instead occur in the object of desire. Silverware may become tarnished, a new dress worn thin or a gadget gone obsolete. Or it may become broken, causing us to grieve. In some cases it may get lost or stolen. In some cases, we may worry about such losses even before they happen. Husbands and wives worry about losing their spouses even though their partners are faithful. Unfortunately, sometimes our very worry and fear drives us to act irrationally, resulting in distrust and breaking up of the very relationship that we cherished so much.
  
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While we like changes such as becoming an adult when we are in our teens, we dislike the change called aging. While we strive for change to become rich, we fear the change of retrenchment. We are selective in our attitude towards the transient nature of our very existence. Unfortunately, this transient nature is unselective. We can try to fight it, just as many have tried since beginningless time, only to have our efforts washed away through the passages of time. As a result, we continually experience dissatisfaction or suffering due to the very impermanence of compounded phenomena.
  
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Only in the realm of Nirvana &mdash; so Mahayana Buddhism insists &mdash; can true and lasting happiness be found. Nirvana is the opposite of the conditional, the transitory and the painful (''dukkha''), so it does not result in disappointment or deterioration of the state of bliss. Nirvana is the refuge from the otherwise universal tyranny of change and suffering. In other schools of Buddhism, nirvana is not viewed as the goal, but merely as a projection from the state of samsara. According to these schools samsara (confusion) and nirvana (perfection) are two sides of the same coin that must be transcended through diligent practice of meditation.
  
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====Anatta====
  
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{{main|Anatta}}
  
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(P&#257;li; Sanskrit: an&#257;tman): In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called &#257;tman (that is, "[[Soul#Buddhist beliefs|soul]]" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence conceived by virtue of existence. This concept and the related concept of [[Brahman]], the Vedantic [[monism|monistic]] ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate [[Atman (Buddhism)|&#257;tman]] for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a [[Platonic form]]. The Buddha rejected all concepts of &#257;tman, emphasizing not permanence, but changeability. He taught that all concepts of a substantial personal self were incorrect, and formed in the realm of ignorance. However, in a number of major Mahayana sutras (e.g. the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], the [[Tathagatagarbha Sutra]], the [[Srimala Sutra]], among others), the Buddha is presented as clarifying this teaching by saying that, while the [[skandhas]] (constituents of the ordinary body and mind) are not the Self, there does truly exist an eternal, unchanging, blissful Buddha-essence in all sentient beings, which is the uncreated and deathless [[Buddha-nature]] ("Buddha-dhatu") or "True Self" of the Buddha himself. This immaculate Buddhic Self ([[atman]]) is in no way to be construed as a mundane, impermanent, suffering "ego", of which it is the diametrical opposite. On the other hand, this Buddha-essence or Buddha-nature is also often explained as the ''potential'' for achieving Buddhahood, rather than an existing phenomenon one can grasp onto as being ''me'' or ''self''. It is the opposite of a personalised, samsaric "I" or "mine". The paradox is that as soon as the Buddhist practitioner tries to grasp at this inner Buddha potency and cling to it as though it were his or her ego writ large, it proves elusive. It does not "exist" in the time-space conditioned and finite mode in which mundane things are bodied forth. It is presented by the Buddha in the relevant sutras as ultimately inexplicable, primordially present Reality itself - the living potency for Buddhahood inside all beings. It is finally revealed (in the last of the Buddha's Mahayana sutras, the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) not as the circumscribed "non-self", the clinging ego (which is indeed [[anatta]]/[[anatman]]), but as the ever-enduring, egoless Great Self or [[Dharmakaya]] of the Buddha.
 
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The scriptural evidence of the Nik&#257;yas and &#256;gamas is ambivalent with regard to the Buddha's reported views on the existence or otherwise of a permanent self (''&#257;tman''/''atta''). Though he is clearly reported to have criticized many of the heterodox concepts concerning an eternal personal self and to have denied the existence of an eternal self with regards to any of the constituent elements (''skandha'') of a being, {{citation needed}} he is nevertheless not reported to have explictly denied the existence of a non-personal, permanent self, contrary to the popular, orthodox view of the Buddha's teachings. Moreover, when the Buddha predicates "''an&#257;tman''" (''anatta'') with regards to the constituents of a being, there is a grammatical ambivalence in the use of the term. The most natural interpretation is that he is simply stating that "the constituents are not the self" rather than "the constituents are devoid of self". This ambivalence was to prove troublesome to Buddhists after the Buddha's passing. Some of the major schools of Buddhism that developed subsequently maintained the former interpretation, but other influential schools adopted the latter interpretation and took measures to establish their view as the orthodox Buddhist position.
  
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One such proponent of this hard-line "no self" position was the monk [[Nagasena]], who appears in the ''[[Milinda Panha|Questions of King Milinda]]'', composed during the period of the Hellenistic [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] of the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. In this text, Nagasena demonstrates the concept of absolute 'no self' by likening human beings to a chariot and challenges the Greek king "Milinda" ([[Menander I|Menander]]) to find the essence of the chariot. Nagasena states that just as a chariot is made up of a number of things, none of which are the essence of the chariot in isolation, without the other pieces, similarly no one part of a person is a permanent entity; we can be broken up into five constituents &mdash; body, sensations, ideation, mental formations and consciousness &mdash; the consciousness being closest to the permanent idea of 'self', but is ever-changing with each new thought according to this viewpoint.
  
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According to some thinkers both in the East and the West, the doctrine of "non-Self", may imply that Buddhism is a form of [[nihilism]] or something similar. However, as thinkers like [[Nagarjuna]] have clearly pointed out, Buddhism is not simply a rejection of the concept of existence (or of meaning, etc.) but of the hard and fast distinction between existence and nonexistence, or rather between ''being'' and ''nothingness''. Phenomena are not independent from causes and conditions, and do not exist as isolated things as we perceive them to be. Philosophers such as [[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]] stress that the lack of a permanent, unchanging, substantial self in beings and things does not mean that they do not experience growth and decay on the relative level. But on the ultimate level of analysis, one cannot distinguish an object from its causes and conditions, or even object and subject. (This is an idea appearing relatively recently in Western science.) Buddhism thus has much more in common with Western [[empiricism]], [[pragmatism]], [[anti-foundationalism]], and even [[poststructuralism]] than with nihilism.
  
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In the Nik&#257;yas, the Buddha and his disciples are commonly found to ask in question or declare "''Is that which is impermanent, subject to change, subject to suffering fit to be considered thus: 'This I am, this is mine, this is my self'?''" The question which the Buddha posts to his audience is whether compounded phenomena is fit to be considered as self, in which the audience agrees that it is unworthy to be considered so. And in relinquishing such an attachment to compounded phenomena, such a person gives up delight, desire and craving for compounded phenomena and is unbounded by its change. When completely free from attachments, craving or desire to the five aggregates, such a person experiences then transcends the very causes of suffering.
 
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In this way, the insight wisdom or [[prajna|prajñ&#257;]] of non-self gives rise to cessation of suffering, and not an intellectual debate over whether a self exists or not.
 
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It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops [[prajna|prajñ&#257;]], which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering. From the "[[tathagatagarbha]]-Mahayana" perspective (which diverges from the Theravadin understanding of Buddhism), however, a further step is requred if full Buddhahood is to be attained: not only seeing what is impermanent, suffering and non-Self in the samsaric sphere, but equally recognising that which is truly Eternal, Blissful, Self, and Pure in the transcendental realm &mdash; the realm of [[Mahaparinirvana]].
  
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''See also: [[three marks of existence]]''
  
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===The Four Noble Truths===
  
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The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Pali: ''Ariya Atthangika Magga'', Sanskrit: ''Arya Ashtanga Marg''). This teaching is called the [[Four Noble Truths]] (Pali: ''Cattari Ariya Saccani'', Sanskrit: ''Chatur Arya Satya''):
  
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# ''[[Dukkha]]'': All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
  
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# ''Samudaya'': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire ([[tanha]]) rooted in ignorance.
  
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# ''Nirodha'': There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
  
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# ''Magga'': There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].
  
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In Buddhism it teaches that suffering is caused by desire and want. The central theory of Buddhist philosophy that explains the cause of suffering is ''[[Pratitya-samutpada|Pratītyasamutpāda]]'' (in Sanskrit). It is written in [[devanagari]] as प्रतीत्यसमुत्पाद and pronounced as "prətītyə səmυtpα:də". It means "the chain of causation", and further that everything in the world, including the soul, is only relative and momentary. The action is not independent but depends upon its cause, hence the famous [[Karma]] theory. The soul (not in the sense of an everlasting reality) goes through an eternal cycle of births and deaths because it undergoes through a series of following twelve :
  
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# Ignorance or ''Avidyā''
  
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# Impressions or ''Samskāra''
  
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# Consciousness or ''Vijñāna''
  
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# Mind-Body Organism or ''Nāma Rūpa''
  
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# Six Senses or ''ŞaDāyatana''
  
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# Sense contact or ''Sparsha''
  
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# Sense Experience or ''Vedanā''
  
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# Craving or ''Tŗişhņa''
  
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# Mental Clinging or ''Upādāna''
  
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# Will to be born or ''Bhava''
  
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# Rebirth or ''Jāti''
  
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# Suffering or ''Jarā-maraņa''.
  
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Buddhism says that each of these causes gives effect to the next, until the twelfth gives rise to the first. This cycle of births and deaths cannot be severed until one attains Nirvana.
  
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Note that the names are given in [[Sanskrit]] and their English meanings are only approximate.
  
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===The Noble Eightfold Path===
  
 
{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
  
{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
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[[Image:Dharma wheel.svg|thumb|The eight-spoked [[Dharmacakra]]. The eight spokes represent the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] of Buddhism.]]
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[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]
  
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The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: [[Sila|Śīla]] (which concerns wholesome physical actions), [[Samadhi]] (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and [[Prajñā]] (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).
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In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain '''lifestyle''' or path be followed which consists of:
  
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#''Right Understanding''
  
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#''Right Thought''
  
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#''Right Speech''
  
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#''Right Action''
  
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#''Right Livelihood''
 
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#''Right Effort''
  
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#''Right Mindfulness''
  
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#''Right Concentration''
  
   
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'''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' is morality—abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
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Sometimes in the [[Pali Canon|P&#257;li Canon]] the Noble Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.
  
   
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#Right Speech—One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}'''
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The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a way of developing [[sila|&#347;&#299;la]], meaning mental and moral discipline.
  
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#Right Actions—Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}'''
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#Right Livelihood—One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)}}'''
   
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'''[[Samadhi]]''' is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
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===Buddhism and reality===
  
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In Buddhism the perceived reality is considered unreal (according to the [[Buddha]]: "Mañjushri, dreams appear but do not exist. Similarly all things, too, appear but do not exist."...“They are illusory, like a mirage, a castle in the sky, the moon in water, a reflected image and an emanation.”{{ref|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}})
  
   
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#Right Effort/Exercise—One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}'''
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Different schools and traditions in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] give different explanations of the mechanism producing the illusion usually called "reality".{{ref|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}}{{ref|Elas_Capriles_book1}}
  
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#Right Mindfulness/Awareness—Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}'''
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#Right Concentration/Meditation—Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}'''
   
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'''[[Prajñā]]''' is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
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==Practices of Buddhism==
  
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===Refuge in The Three Jewels===
  
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[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.JPG|thumb|170px|Footprint of the [[Buddha]] with the [[triratana]], the symbolic depiction of the [[Three Jewels]], and the [[Dharma wheel]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara]].]]
  
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{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)}}
  
   
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#Right Understanding—Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}'''
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Buddhists seek [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]] in the "[[Three Jewels]]" of Buddhism as the foundation of their religious practice. The jewels are the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma#In Buddhism|Dharma]], and the "noble" and "monastic" [[Sangha]]s {{ref|Sangha_TripleJewel}} (the group of beings possessing at least some degree of enlightenment and the community of monks and nuns, respectively).
  
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#Right Thoughts—Change in the pattern of thinking.
   
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The word '''samyak''' means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behavior) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration).
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The Buddha presented himself as an ideal example and entreated his followers to have [[Faith in Buddhism|faith]] in his example as one who was human and escaped the pain of existence. Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma#Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be avoided by following the ''[[Noble Eightfold Path|Noble Eightfold Path]]''. The [[Dharma#In Buddhism|Dharma]] offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Sangha provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further example that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
  
   
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====Śīla: (Moral cultivation and the precepts)====
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To someone who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, often more than once in order to remind themselves of their commitment and to direct their resolve inward toward liberation.
  
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{{main|Sila|The Five Precepts|The Eight Precepts|Patimokkha}}
   
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'''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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In all forms of Buddhism, refuge in the Three Jewels are taken before the [[Sangha]] for the first time, as a part of the conversion ritual. However, to Buddhists, the personal choice for taking refuge is more important than the external ritual.
  
   
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Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internally, but also peace in the community, which is externally. According to the Law of Kamma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.
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In Buddhism, the word "refuge" should often not be taken in the English sense of "hiding" or "escape"; instead it is thought of as a homecoming, or place of healing. This simple misunderstanding has led some Western scholars to conclude that Buddhism is "a religion for sticking one's head in the sand", when most Buddhists would assert quite the opposite. On the other hand, the main goal of Buddhism is to escape from the suffering of cyclic existence. Some translators also translate it as "taking safe direction".
  
   
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Śīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' ([[five precepts]]), 'basic morality with asceticism' ([[eight precepts]]), 'novice monkhood' ([[ten precepts]]) and 'monkhood' ([[Vinaya]] or [[Patimokkha]]). Lay people generally undertake to live by the [[The Five Precepts|five precepts]] which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.
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===The Five Precepts===
  
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{{main|Pancasila}}
  
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[[Image:Sri_lanka_aukana_buddha_statue.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Buddha statue [[Aukana]], in [[Sri Lanka]] ]]
  
   
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Buddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Hence, they are also known as training rules. Laypeople generally undertake (at least one of) five precepts. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but rather are promises to oneself: "I will (try) ..."
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The [[five precepts]] are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
   
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# To refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
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:1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards [[Sentience|sentient]] life forms)
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# To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
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:2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing [[theft]])
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# To refrain from [[sexual misconduct]].
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:3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)
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# To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
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:4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
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# To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.
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:5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of [[mindfulness]] (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)
   
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In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of [[celibacy]].
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This difference stems from the rationale behind them. While other religion institutes commandments and is based on the wishes or commands of a divine being, Buddhist precepts are based more on common sense that the Buddha highlights to Buddhists. Just as we would not want to be killed, others, cherishing their own life would not want to be killed. Hence we should not engage in harming or killing others. The same rationale applies to the second, third and fourth precepts.
  
   
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The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
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The fifth and last precept involving refrain from intoxicants is unique in that the act of taking intoxicants itself is commonly not seen as an immediate or direct harm towards others. Instead it may serve as the catalyst for further acts of transgression against others in terms of either a single or possible combination of any of the first four precepts. The daily news will ascertain for us that there are daily crimes and accidents around the world that result from the consumption of alcohol or other forms of intoxicants, many of which could have been avoided if this rule was observed.
  
   
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:6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)
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In addition to the indirect effects of intoxicants is the direct impact that intoxicants have, of dulling the mind. Mindfulness, a central teaching in Buddhism, builds upon the ability to train one's mind and develop it to its fullest potential of enlightenment, whereas the taking of intoxicants runs counter to that and impedes mindfulness by allowing dullness and heedlessness of the mind.
  
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:7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
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:8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.
   
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[[Vinaya]] is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. [[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic precepts for monastics.
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The other distinguishing feature of the Buddhist precepts is that they are wider-ranging in implication than the "commandments" of some other religions. The first precept, against killing, for example, forbids the killing of animals as well as humans (but see [[Buddhist vegetarianism]]). Furthermore, in Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha indicates how all-inclusive the injunction against killing is, saying (in ''The Scripture of Brahma's Net''):
  
   
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In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and [[vegetarianism]] is actively encouraged (see ''[[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]''). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.
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:"Disciples of the Buddha, should you yourself kill, wilfully cause another to kill, encourage someone to kill, extol killing, take pleasure in seeing killing take place, deliberately wish someone dead, intentionally cause death, supply the instruments or means for killing, cut off a life even when sanctioned by law, that is, participate in any way in killing, you are committing a serious offense warranting exclusion. Pray, do not intentionally kill anything whatsoever which has life."
  
   
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===Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation)===
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It should also be noted that the literal, and possibly original, meaning of the third precept covers more than the now generally standard meaning "sexual misconduct" and actually involves refraining from "wrong indulgence in all sensory pleasures". {{citation needed}}
  
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{{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}}
   
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In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
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In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. Fully ordained monks and nuns of the Theravada school also observe 227 and 311 [[patimokkha]] training rules respectively.
  
   
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Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit ध्यान '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.
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===Buddha-nature===
  
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{{main article|[[Buddha-nature]]}}
  
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The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahayana sutras contain a set of "ultimate" (''nitartha'') teachings &mdash; rejected, it should be noted, by the Theravadins &mdash; on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvana. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key [[tathagatagarbha]] sutras which expound it, the ''Buddha-dhatu'' ("Buddha-element", [[Buddha-nature]]) or the [[Tathagatagarbha]]. This ''Buddha-dhatu'' is empty of all that is contingent, changeful, painful and impermanent. In the [[Nirvana Sutra]], it is called by the Buddha the "True Self" (to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self made up of the five [[skandhas]]). It is no less than the unfabricated, uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood - the very [[Dharmakaya]],/ [[Dhammakaya]]法身. This ''Tathagatagarbha'' / ''Buddha-dhatu'', inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the ''Buddha-dhatu'' is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that seer and knower into a Buddha. The doctrine of the ''Tathagatagarbha'' / ''Buddha-dhatu'' is stated by the Buddha of the Mahayana [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahayana Dharma.
  
   
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[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.
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===Other principles and practices===
  
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*[[Buddhist meditation|Meditation]] or [[dhyana|dhy&#257;na]] of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
  
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*Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of ''[[karma]]'' and ''[[vipaka]]''; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of [[dependent origination]] (''prat&#299;tya-samutp&#257;da''). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime. Most teachers are, however, quick to point out that though it may be a result of someone's past-life ''[[karma]]'' that they suffer, this should not be used as an excuse to treat them poorly; indeed, all should help them and help to alleviate their suffering, leading to them working to alleviate their own suffering.
  
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*[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]], which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman)) breaks this cycle of birth and death ([[samsara]]).
  
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*[[God]]: The Buddha was not satisfied with the concept of one Almighty God ([[Ishvara]], lit., ''the Supreme Lord'') as in orthodox [[Hinduism]]. Buddha said that the ever-changing world goes on as per the rules of Pratītya-Samutpāda. Also, the hypothesis of God would raise philosophical problems, like why is the world ever-changing and full of sorrow (the [[problem of evil]]), and why at all did He create the world? {{citation needed}} If He created the world for any intention, this would be against His self-perfection. Yet at another instance, the Buddha had claimed that ''"the Supreme Reality is indescribable and inutterable"''. In this sense, it is better to call Buddhism [[agnostic]]. The existence of [[demigods]] is recognized. However, in practice, Karma had taken the place of God in Theravada, and the Buddha himself is venerated like God in Mahayana. {{citation needed}}
  
   
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In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''{{IAST|ñāṇa}}''' knowledge), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|{{IAST|nirvāṇa}}]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna'''). When one is in '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''', it is '''nibbāna''', albeit only temporary because in these states, all defilements are suppressed. Only '''[[prajñā]]''' or vipassana eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which arahants abide in order to rest.
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===Vegetarianism===
  
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{{main_article|[[Buddhist vegetarianism]]}}
  
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The [[Pancasila|first lay precept]] in Buddhism is usually translated as "I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures." Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. There is a division of view within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with the majority of schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. A minority of Mahayana Buddhists, however, strongly oppose meat-eating on certain scriptural grounds.
  
   
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===Prajñā (Wisdom)===
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It is written in a number of Mahayana scriptures that vegetarianism is much the preferred way of life, indeed it is enjoined upon the Bodhisattva and disciples of the Buddha in such sutras as the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] and the [[Lankavatara Sutra]].
  
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{{main|Prajñā}}
   
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'''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things as [[dukkha]] (unsatisfactory), [[anicca]] (impermanence) and [[anatta]] (devoid of self). Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]] of the Mahayana.
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The question of whether Buddhists should indeed be vegetarian continues to be an area of vigorous debate and controversy, especially in the West. {{citation needed}}
  
   
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Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} many attaining nirvana upon hearing the Buddha's discourse.
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==Buddhist religious philosophy and branches==
  
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[[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]]
  
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{{main_article|[[Buddhist religious philosophy]]}}
  
   
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Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation {{Fact|date=June 2007}} to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.
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Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: ''[[Nikaya]]'', ''[[Mahayana]]'', and ''[[Vajrayana]]''. Of the Nikaya schools, only the ''[[Theravada]]'' survives.
 
   
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===Buddhism and intellectualism===
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Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, and some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances, thus validating dharmic approaches different from their own.
  
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{{main|Reality in Buddhism}}
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According to the [[Pali Canon|scriptures]], in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several philosophical questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[bodhi|enlightenment]].<ref>[[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 72 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997)]. For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html Thanissaro (2004)].</ref> Another is that such questions assume the reality of world/self/person.
   
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In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, faith in and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself.
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==Buddhism after the Buddha==
  
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{{main_article|[[History of Buddhism]]}}
  
   
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The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] (a Mahayana scripture), insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]], a scripture of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."<ref>''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111&ndash;112.</ref> Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].
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Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful [[Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]] converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.
  
   
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Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.<ref>''Philosophy East and West'', volume Twenty-Six, page 138</ref>
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[[Image:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|180px|One of the first representations of the [[Buddha]], 1st-2nd century CE, [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]].]]
  
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From the [[1st century BCE]] Buddhism started to emerge, receiving influences "from popular Hindu devotional cults ([[bhakti]]), [[Persians|Persian]] and [[Greco-Roman]] theologies which filtered into India from the northwest" (Lowenstein, 1996). Some of these influences appear on the artistic plane with the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]]. Mahayana then expanded into [[Central Asia]] and to [[Eastern Asia]].
 
   
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Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.
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After about [[500|500 CE]], Buddhism showed signs of waning in India, becoming [[decline of Buddhism in India|nearly extinct]] after about [[1200|1200 CE]]. This was in part due to [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the [[bhakti movement]]. Over time, the local Buddhist populations gradually assimilated into Islam, hence the concentration of South Asian Islam in the far west and east of the Subcontinent.
  
   
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Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989, page 2</ref> doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref>
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Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the Bauls of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including [[Ladakh]] and other areas bordering the Tibetan, Nepali and Bhutanese borders.
  
   
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==Buddhist texts==
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Buddhism also remained in the rest of the world although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China and Japan, it adopted aspects of the native beliefs of [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Shinto]] respectively. In Tibet, the [[Tantra|Tantric]] Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.
  
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{{PaliCanon}}
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{{main|Buddhist texts}}
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Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:
   
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*The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Pitaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha]]s of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
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===Principal schools of Buddhist philosophy===
  
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*The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Pitaka]]''' (Pāli: [[Sutta Pitaka]]), contains the actual discourses of [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]].
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{{main_article|[[History of Buddhist schools]]}}
  
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*The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Pitaka]]''' (Pāli: [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.
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In his lifetime, Gautam Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the soul, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Hence the Buddhist missionaries often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. So later Buddhists made various interpretations of Buddha's teachings and formed four major schools of thought.
  
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*'''Shūnyavāda''' of the ''[[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamikas]]'': this is a Mahayana school, popularized by [[Nagarjuna]] and '''Ashvaghosha'''. According to the Mādhyamikas, there is a supreme indescribable substance—Shūnyatā (lit., voidness)—which is neither true nor false. Everything in this world arises from this voidness. Hence the world is false as compared to the Shūnyatā. This concept somewhat resembles the Brahman of [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosophy of [[Adi Sankara]]. (However, Shankara had condemned Shūnyavāda to be "contradictory to all valid means of knowledge".)
  
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*'''Vijñānavāda''' of the ''[[Yogacara|Yogāchāras]]'': this is another Mahayana school, propounded by Asanga and Vasubandhu. According to them, only the consciousness (Vijñāna) is true, and all objects of this world external to the mind are false. They believe in an absolute, permanent consciousness (similar to a soul) called '''Ālaya Vijñāna'''. This branch became famous in China, Tibet, Japan and Mongolia.
  
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*'''Bāhyānumeyavāda''' of the ''[[Svatantrika|Sautrāntrikas]]'': this is a Theravada school which believes in the existence of both consciousness and material objects—but believes that the external objects can only be percieved indirectly through inference by our mind (Indirect Realism).
  
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*'''Bāhya-Pratyakshavāda''' of the ''Vaibhāshikas'': this is another Theravada school—based on an ancient Buddhist conference in [[Kashmir]], which also believes in the existence of both consciousness and material objects (as composed of atoms). They believe that external objects are known through direct perception (Direct Realism).
  
   
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According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings&mdash;[[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)&mdash;and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.
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==Scriptures==
  
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The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the ''Tripitaka'' and in [[Pali|P&#257;li]] as the ''[[Tipitaka|Tipitaka]]''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:
  
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[[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks debating]]
  
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*The ''[[Vinaya]] Pitaka'', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Sangha]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
  
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*The ''[[Sutra Pitaka|Sutta Pitaka]]'' (P&#257;li; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
 
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*The ''[[Abhidhamma]]'' (Skt: Abhidharma) or commentary ''Pitaka'', containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology. Though the Therav&#257;din Abhidhamma is well preserved and widely known, it should be noted that a number of the early [[Eighteen Schools]] each had their own distinct Abhidharma collection with virtually no common textual material.
  
   
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The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Early Buddhist Schools]] traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered by some to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly either were transmitted in secret, or via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations.
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During the first few centuries after [[Gautama Buddha]], his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the 1st Century [[Common Era|CE]] they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the [[Pali Canon]], which was preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] by the [[Theravada|Therav&#257;da]] school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/palicanon.html] and partial English translations[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/] are now readily available on the internet.
 
   
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The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]].
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The appearance of the [[Mahayana|Mah&#257;y&#257;na]] tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]], many of which were also described as actual sermons of the [[Buddha]]. These include the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avata&#7747;saka]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalak&#299;rti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra|Nirvana Sutra]]. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and [[classical Chinese]] and are also now read in the West.
  
   
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Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma&mdash;and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.
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The Mah&#257;y&#257;na corpus of sutras further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Some of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. On the other hand, there were texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] that did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but are widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the [[Linji Lu]] of [[Chan]] master [[Linji]]. In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in Japan, works such as [[Dogen]]'s [[Shobogenzo]].
  
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[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|left|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]
   
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For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but from the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the [[bodhisattva]] path. That path is explained to be built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism&mdash;from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free '''all''' other persons and creatures from pain), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For Theravadins and many scholars<ref>for example: A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edtion (2000), p. 4</ref>, however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the [[Mahayana Sutras]] does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.
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Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana works is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). [[Vajrayana|Vajray&#257;na]] practitioners also study the Buddhist [[Tantric Buddhism|tantras]].
  
   
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Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, scholars have referred to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the first four Nikayas of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)</ref> this could, however, be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these not a core, merely a preliminary teaching, and the Tibetans never even translated most of the āgamas, though theoretically recognizing them. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
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Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient [[Gandhara]] in northwest [[Pakistan]]. These fragments, written on [[birch bark document|birch bark]], are dated to the 1st century and have been compared to the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] in importance. Donated to the [[British Library]] in 1994, they are now being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/].
  
   
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Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture.
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==Relations with other faiths==
  
   
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[[Dwight Goddard]] collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen&mdash;along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]&mdash;into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.
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Some [[Hindus]] (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see [[avatar]]) of [[Lord Vishnu]]; there are accounts of the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu that are pro- and anti-Buddhist (i.e., either that Vishnu "really meant" what he said while incarnated as Buddha or that he was intentionally tricking those who follow unorthodox doctrines). This is not a majority view, however. The avatar theory came into existence in approximately the 9th century CE.
  
   
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==Buddhist symbols==
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Traditionally, there has been a sharp distinction between Buddhism and what is today called "[[Hinduism]]"; this distinction is more accurately between [[Astika]] and [[Nastika]] philosophies, that is, philosophies in India which either affirmed the [[Vedas]] as divinely revealed scriptures or else regarded them as fallible human inventions. Thus Buddhism is theoretically a heresy vis à vis orthodox Indian philosophy, though there are many [[syncretism|syncretic]] or [[ecumenical]] tendencies within either group which are accepting of the beliefs and practices of the other. Most modern Hindus deeply revere Gautama Buddha. Buddha Purnima, a festival celebrating the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most popular Hindu festivals.
 
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{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}
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The eight auspicious symbols of Mahayana and Vajrayana are:
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* the Parasol (Umbrella)
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* the Golden Fish
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* the Treasure Vase
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* the Lotus
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* the Conch Shell
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* the [[Endless knot|Endless Knot]]
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* the Victory Banner
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* the [[Dharma wheel]]
   
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==Comparative study==
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In the [[Japan]]ese religion of [[Shinto|Shintoism]] Buddha is seen as a [[Kami]] (god). The [[Bahá'í Faith]] states he was an independent [[Manifestation of God]]. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church as Saint [[Josaphat (saint)|Josaphat]] based on a mistaken account of his life that made him out to be a Christian convert. Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Gautama Buddha is [[Dhul-Kifl]], one of the prophets mentioned in the [[Qur'an]].
  
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{{sectstub}}
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Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.
   
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'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''
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[[Jainism]] is an ancient religion and school of thought that predates Buddhism. One of its two most revered teachers, [[Mahavira|Mah&#257;v&#299;ra]] ([[599 BC|599]] - [[527 BC|527 BCE]] according to Jains, though some scholars prefer 549-477 B.C.<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn 1|1]]</sup>), was possibly a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as [[dynamism]] or [[vitalism]], was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher [[Parsvanatha|P&#257;r&#347;van&#257;tha]]'s (877-777 BC) order and the reforms instituted by Mahavira himself. (The ''Majjhima Nikaya'' relates an incident wherein a disciple brings Buddha the news that the Nigantha Nattaputta, i.e. Mahavira, had passed away, thereby suggesting the latter's seniority.) Debates between Buddhists and Jains are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Jains and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts. (See also the "Origins" section, above.)
  
   
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*[[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
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The relationships between [[Taoism]] (Chinese folk religion still popular today) and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to renew and restructure itself and address existential questions raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind of foreign Taoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. [[Zen]] ([[Chan]]) Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Taoism.
  
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*[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
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*[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
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*[[Buddhism and Christianity]]
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*[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
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*[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)
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*[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science)
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*[[Buddhism and psychology]]
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*[[Buddhism and Jainism]]
   
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==Criticism==
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[[Confucianism]] also has much in common with Buddhism, and historically, people have practiced both. Some would argue however, that Confucianism is in fact not a [[religion]], but a [[philosophy]]. Whatever the case, Buddhism shares many commonalities with [[Neo-Confucianism]] , which is Confucianism with more religious elements. In fact, the ritual of ancestor worship normally practiced by Confucianists, has been adapted to Chinese Buddhist beliefs.
  
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Although Buddhism is generally seen as benign and peaceful in the West, there is some criticism of it, from the [[anti-religion|anti-religious]] ([[atheism|atheists]]) as well as from other religions.
   
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[[Christians]] and [[Muslims]] often criticize Buddhism for being idolatrous <ref>''Islam and Buddhism – Harun Yahyah'', http://www.harunyahya.com/buddhism02.php </ref>
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===Buddha Not an incarnation of Visnhu ===
  
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Many anti-religious people see Buddhism just as (or almost as) superstitious and damaging as any other religion, even though many of its forms are [[nontheism|nontheistic]] or even [[atheism|atheistic]]<ref>"Is Buddhism Atheistic?", http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/beliefs/atheism.htm</ref><ref>"Buddhism is Atheist", http://www.vexen.co.uk/religion/buddhism_atheism.html</ref><ref>"Buddhism and Atheism", http://atheism.about.com/b/2005/11/28/buddhism-and-atheism.htm</ref>. [[Christopher Hitchens]] is a vocal critic of Buddhism and the Dalai Lama <ref>”There is No Eastern Solution", god Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Christopher Hitchens</ref> <ref> "His Material Highness" by Christopher Hitchens, http://www.salon.com/news/1998/07/13news</ref>.
   
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However Richard Dawkins stated in the God Delusion that he regards Buddhism and Confucianism as ethical systems and philosophies rather than religions <ref>The God Delusion, Richard Dawkins</ref> while Sam Harris practices Buddhist meditation, but does acknowledge that the kamikaze attacks of WWII where inspired by Buddhism <ref>”Ch. 7: Experiments in Consciousness”, The End of Faith, Sam Harris</ref> and that the term “Buddhism” should be removed entirely and Buddhist meditation should leave the realm of religion and enter the realm of science <ref>Killing the Buddha by Sam Harris, http://www.samharris.org/media/killing_the_buddha.pdf</ref>. These three are considered three of the four "[[Four Horsemen]]" of the "[[atheism|New Atheism]]" <ref>http://richarddawkins.net/article,2025,THE-FOUR-HORSEMEN,Discussions-With-Richard-Dawkins-Episode-1-RDFRS</ref><ref>http://daviddent.net/blog/2007/06/17/the-four-horsemen-of-the-new-atheism/</ref>.
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Now-a-days there is a mutual understanding between Hindus and Buddhists that Buddha is not an incarnation of Vishnu. Regarding this important and controversial point two leaders from both communities agreed on few points as below.[http://www.vri.dhamma.org/newsletters/nl0001.html]
  
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Joint Communiqué by Jagadguru [[Shankaracharya]] Shri Jayendra Saraswatiji of Kanchi Kamakoti Pith and Vipassanacharya [[S. N. Goenka]].
  
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The Maha Bodhi Society Office, Sarnath, Varanasi. 3:30 p.m., 11 November 1999
  
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This joint communiqué is being issued after the cordial talk between Jagadguru Shankaracharya Shri Jayendra Saraswatiji of Kanchi Kamakoti Pith and Vipassanacharya Guruji Shri Satyanarayana Goenkaji.
  
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Both agree and wish that there should be harmonious and friendly relations between both ancient (the Vedic and the æramana) traditions. If there has been any misconception in this matter in the minds of the people of the neighbouring countries, it should be removed at the earliest.
  
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The following was agreed:
  
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1. Due to whatever reason some literature was written (in India) in the past in which the Buddha was declared to be a reincarnation of Vishnu and various things were written about him. This was very unpleasant to the neighbouring countries. In order to foster friendlier ties between the two communities we decide that whatever has happened in the past (cannot be undone, but) should be forgotten and such beliefs should not be propagated.
  
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2. A misconception has spread in the neighbouring countries that the Hindu society of India is organising such conferences to prove its dominance over the followers of the Buddha. To forever remove this misconception we declare that both Vedic and æramana traditions are ancient traditions of India. Both have their own prestigious existence. Any attempt by one tradition to show itself higher than the other will only generate hatred and ill will between the two. Hence such a thing should not be done in the future and both traditions should be accorded equal respect and esteem.
  
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3. Anybody can attain a high position in the society by doing good deeds. One becomes a low (person in society) if one does evil deeds. Hence anybody can-by doing good deeds and removing the defilements such as passion, anger, arrogance, ignorance, greed, jealousy and ego-attain a high position in society and enjoy peace and happiness.
  
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We agree on all the three things mentioned above and wish that all the people of India from all the traditions should have cordial relations and the neighbouring countries should also have friendly relations with India.
  
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==Buddhism in the modern world==
  
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[[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg|thumb|right|The international [[Buddhist flag]] was designed in [[Sri Lanka]] in the 1880s with the assistance of [[Henry Steele Olcott]] and was later adopted as a [[Buddhist symbolism|symbol]] by the [[World Fellowship of Buddhists]].]]
  
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: ''Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: It transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural and the spiritual, and it is based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.''
  
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: &mdash; [[Albert Einstein]]
  
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Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 700 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html]
  
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[[Mahayana|Mah&#257;y&#257;na]] remains the most common form of Buddhism in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and parts of [[Indonesia]]. [[Theravada|Therav&#257;da]] has seats in Malaysia and Singapore, and predominates in most of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], and [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Vajrayana|Vajray&#257;na]] is predominant in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], portions of [[Siberia]], and portions of [[India]], especially those areas bordering [[Tibet]]. [[Kalmykia]], while geographically located in [[Europe]], is culturally closely related to Mongolia and thus its Buddhism is more properly grouped with Asian than with Western Buddhism.
  
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While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive; in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with the powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.
  
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==Buddhism and the West==
  
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[[Image: MenanderCoin.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I|Menander]] (155-130 BCE) is the first Western historical figure documented to have converted to Buddhism.]]
  
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Occasional intersections between Western civilization and the Buddhist world have been occurring for thousands of years. Perhaps the most significant of these began in [[334 BCE]], early in the [[history of Buddhism]], when the Macedonian king [[Alexander the Great]] conquered most of [[Central Asia]]. The [[Seleucids]] and the successive [[Greco-Bactrian]] and [[Indo-Greek]] kingdoms established an important [[Hellenistic]] influence in the area, which interacted with Buddhism, as examplified by the emergence of [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. The conversion to Buddhism of the Indo-Greek king [[Menander I|Menander]] (155-130 BCE) is described in Indian sources (the [[Milinda Panha]]), and echoed in Western ones ([[Plutarch]]).
  
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In the latter half of the [[19th century]], Buddhism (along with many other of the world's religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals. These included the pessimistic [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]] [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], who encountered Buddhism, and Eastern thought in general, after having devised a philosophical system of considerable compatibility; and the [[United States|American]] philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]], who translated a Buddhist sutra from [[French (language)|French]] into [[English (language)|English]]. Western spiritual seekers were attracted to what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions, and created [[esoteric]] societies such as the [[Theosophical Society]] of [[H.P. Blavatsky]]. The [[Buddhist Society, London]] was founded by Theosophist [[Christmas Humphreys]] in [[1924]].
  
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At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but soon Western scholars such as [[Max Müller]] began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts.
 
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In [[1880]] the [[Colombo Committee]] designed the [[Buddhist flag|International Buddhist flag]] to celebrate the revival of Buddhism in [[Sri Lanka]]. It was first hoisted on [[May 28]], [[1885]] and was later modified to fit the typical proportions of national flags at the suggestion of [[Henry Steel Olcott]]. [http://www.quangduc.com/English/WorldBuddhism/35buddhistflag.html] Its stripes symbolise universal compassion, the middle path, blessings, purity and liberation, wisdom, and the conglomeration of these. The flag was accepted as the International Buddhist Flag by the [[1952]] [[World Buddhist Congress]].
  
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[[Image:Lightmatter Hsi Lai Temple 3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A hallway in California's [[Hsi Lai Temple]].]]
  
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In [[1899]] [[Gordon Douglas]] became the first Westerner to be ordained as a Buddhist monk.
  
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The first Buddhists to arrive in the [[United States]] were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the [[railroads]] and other expanding industries, they established temples in their settlements along the rail lines. See the article on [[Buddhism in America]] for further information.
  
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During the 20th century the German writer [[Hermann Hesse]] showed great interest in Eastern religions, writing a book entitled ''Siddhartha''. American [[beat generation]] poet [[Jack Kerouac]] became a well-known literary Buddhist, for his [[roman-a-clef]] [[The Dharma Bums]] and other works. The cultural re-evaluations of the [[hippie]] generation in the late 1960s and early 1970s led to a re-discovery of Buddhism, which seemed to promise a more methodical path to happiness than Christianity and a way out of the perceived spiritual bankruptcy of Western life. {{citation needed}}
  
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Many of these 'seekers', traveling to Asia in pursuit of gurus and ancient wisdom, first encountered Buddhism in Nepal or northern India through contact with Tibetan monks who had fled the Chinese occupancy in 1959. Within a few years Tibetan lamas such as [[Chögyam Trungpa]] Rinpoche, Geshe [[Ngawang Wangyal]] and the 14th [[Dalai Lama]], [[Tenzin Gyatso]], were invited to teach in the West.
 
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In addition to this a number of Americans who had served in the Korean or Vietnam Wars stayed out in Asia, seeking to understand both the horror they had witnessed and its context. A few of these eventually ordained as monks in the Theravadan tradition, and upon returning home became influential meditation teachers establishing such centres as IMS in America.
 
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Another contributing factor in the flowering of Buddhist thought in the West was the popularity of Zen amongst the counter-culture poets and activists of the 60's, due to the writings of [[Alan Watts]] and [[Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki|D.T. Suzuki]]. Since that time Buddhism has become the fastest-growing religion in Australia and many other Western nations.
  
−  
−
A distinctive feature of Buddhism has been the continuous evolution of the practice as it was transmitted from one country to another. This dynamic aspect is particularly evident today in the West. [[Chögyam Trungpa]], the founder of the [[Shambhala Buddhism|Shambhala]] meditation movement, claimed in his teachings that his intention was to strip the ethnic baggage away from traditional methods of working with the mind and to deliver the essence of those teachings to his western students. Another example of a school evolving new idioms for the transmission of the dharma is the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]] (FWBO), founded by [[Sangharakshita]] in [[1967]]. [[Lama Surya Das]] is a prominent Western-born teacher continuing to bring the teachings of Buddhism to Westerners.
  
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Some, mainly American convert Buddhists including [[Jack Kerouac]], are recently incorporating [[Jesus]] into Buddhism. They claim that Jesus is a bodhisattva in that he achieved a very high degree of [[enlightenment]].
  
   
 
==See also==
  
==See also==
  +
{{portal}}
−
===Buddhism===
  
  +
*[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]
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* [[Buddhists]]
  
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* [[History of Buddhist schools]]
 +
*[[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
  +
*[[List of Buddhist topics]]
−
* [[Buddha]]
  
−
* [[Buddhism by country]]
 +
*[[List of Buddhists]]
  +
*[[shinbutsu shūgō]]
−
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
  
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* [[Buddhist texts]]
 +
*[[Mahayana]]
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* [[Cultural elements of Buddhism]]
  
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* [[Faith in Buddhism]]
  
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* [[God in Buddhism]]
  
−
* [[Nirvana]]
  
−
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
  
−
* [[List of Buddhists]]
  
−
* [[Kilesa]]
  
−
* [[Virtue]]
  
   
  +
==References==
−
===Related systems and religions===
  
  +
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Buddhism}}
−
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
  
  +
*Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, 1984
−
* [[Hinduism]]
  
  +
*{{cite web|author=Berzin, Alexander | work=Berzin Archives | title=Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan|date=November 2001|url=http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html}}
−
* [[Jainism]]
  
  +
*{{cite journal| last = Cousins| first = L. S.| title = The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article| journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = Series 3| issue = 6.1| pages = 57-63| date= 1996| url = http://indology.info/papers/cousins/| accessdate = 2007-7-11}}; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
−
* [[Taoism]]
  
  +
*{{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| date= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}
  +
*{{cite book | author=[[Rupert Gethin|Gethin, Rupert]] | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}
  +
*{{cite book| author=Harvey, Peter | title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=1990| id= ISBN 0-52-131333-3}}
  +
*{{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}
  +
*{{cite book | title = A Concise History of Buddhism | author = Skilton, Andrew | year = 1997 | publisher = Windhorse Publications | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GEKd4iqH3C0C&dq=history+of+buddhism |isbn = 0904766926}}
  +
*{{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | date= 1989}}
  +
*Williams, Paul (ed.), ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'', 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York, 2005
   
  +
==Suggested reading==
−
===Related modern concepts===
  
−
* [[Simulated reality]]
  
   
−
==References and Links==
  
−
The following below are the references, footnotes and external links pertaining to the articles of '''Buddhism''', '''[[Buddhists]]''' and '''[[Buddhist religious philosophy]]'''.
  
   
  +
*{{cite book | author=Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) | title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | date= 2003 | isbn=978-0028657189}}
−
===References===
  
−
*{{Book reference | Author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | Title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | Publisher=Oxford University Press | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
 +
*{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
−
* {{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127.
 +
*{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda|Dhammananda, K. Sri]] | page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf | title=What Buddhists Believe | site=http://www.bmsm.org.my/ Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia|date=2002}}Sarunya Prasopchingchana & Dana Sugu, 'Distinctiveness of the Unseen Buddhist Identity' (International Journal of Humanistic Ideology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, vol. 4, 2010)
  +
*{{cite book | author=Donath, Dorothy C. | title=Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day | publisher=Julian Press | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-07-017533-0}}
−
*{{Book reference | Author=Gethin, Rupert | Title=Foundations of Buddhism | Publisher=Oxford University Press | Year=1998 | ID=ISBN 0192892231}}
  
−
*{{Book reference | Author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | Title=Mindfulness in Plain English | Publisher=Wisdom Publications | Year=2002 | ID=ISBN 0861713214}}
 +
*{{cite book | author=[[Henepola Gunaratana|Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola]] | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php]
  +
*{{cite book | author=Juergensmeyer, Mark | title = The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions | series = Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0195137989}}
−
*{{Book reference | Author=Lowenstein, Tom | Title=The vision of the Buddha | Publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | Year=1996 | ID=ISBN 1903296919}}
  
−
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692.
 +
*{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The Vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}
  +
*{{cite book | author=Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) | title=The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen | publisher=Shambhala | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-87773-520-4}}
−
*{{Book reference | Author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | Title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | Publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | Year=1976 | ID=ISBN 0271006013}}
  
  +
*Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), ''The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distibuted by Wisdom Books
−
* {{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313.
  
  +
*{{cite book | author=Nattier, Jan | title=A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha) | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-8248-2607-8}}
−
* {{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|Publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|Year=2005}} ISBN 0889460507.
  
  +
*{{cite book | author=Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. | title=The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction | publisher=Wadsworth Publishing | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0-534-01027-X}}
−
*{{Book reference | Author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | Title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| Publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
  
−
* {{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335.
 +
*{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}
  +
*{{cite book | author=Smith, Huston | title=Buddhism: A Concise Introduction | coauthors=Phillip Novak | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | year=2003 | isbn=978-0060730673}}
  +
*{{cite book | author=[[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] | title=[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha] (3rd ed., rev.) | year=2001}}
  +
*{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
  +
*{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}
  +
*{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
  +
*{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White|White, Kenneth]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
  +
*{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
  +
*{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
  +
* [http://www.sentientpublications.com/authors/weiwuwei.php Wei, Wei Wu],[http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/lazarus.php "Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra"], Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960.[http://www.weiwuwei.8k.com/]
  +
* '''Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series'''/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
   
−
===Footnotes===
  
−
# {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web.
  
−
# {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]''
  
−
# {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web.
  
−
# {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001
  
   
  +
* Jewels of the Doctrine (Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century)/ Ranjini/ Sri Satguru Publications
−
===External links===
  
−
{{sisterlinks|Buddhism}}
  
   
  +
==Notes==
−
====About Buddhism====
  
  +
<!--<nowiki>
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* [http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/Buddhism.html Buddhism - A Brief Introduction for Westerners]
  
  +
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below
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* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism] ([[Access to Insight]])
  
  +
</nowiki>-->
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* [http://www.ohbliss.org/en/buddhism_faq.html Beginning Buddhism FAQ]
  
  +
{{reflist|2}}
−
* [http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk/about-buddhism.php About Buddhism - the teachings of Buddha]
  
−
* [http://www.soyouwanna.com/site/syws/buddhism/buddhism.html SoYouWanna convert to Buddhism?]
  
−
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles.
  
   
  +
==External links==
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====Comparative religion====
  
  +
<!-- Wikipedia is not a collection of links. See Wikipedia:External links for more. If you add links here that don't belong or just because you want to, we'll bop your butt with a rusty hubcap-->
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* [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/ebdha125.htm Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism]
  
−
* [http://www.mrrena.com/budd.shtml A Study of Buddhism in Contrast to Christianity]
 +
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Buddhism] at Open Directory Project
  +
*[http://www.awakeningthedragon.com/ American Buddhist Sangah]
  +
*[http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]
  +
*[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]
  +
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Buddhist texts] (English translations)
  +
*[http://www.what-Buddha-taught.net What the Buddha Taught ] Multi-lingual
  +
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
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|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html
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|title= Buddhism - objects, art and history
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|work=Asia
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|accessdate= 2007-12-06}}
   
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====Journalism====
  
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* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]
  
−
* [http://www.buddhistchannel.tv The Buddhist Channel] a news source.
  
   
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====Online communities====
  
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* [http://www.buddhachat.org/ BuddhaChat.org] - A Buddhists Learning Community.
  
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* [http://www.deerparkgathering.org/ Deer Park Gathering] - A Buddhist Web Community (with webboards, chat and reading material) under direction of Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche
  
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* [http://www.dharmaWeb.org/ DharmaWeb.org]
  
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* [http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Forum]
  
   
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{{Religion-related topics}}
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====Organizations====
  
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* [http://www.goingonretreat.com/ Buddhists retreat centres UK]
  
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* [http://www.fwbo.org Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]
  
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* [http://www.ocbs.org Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies]
  
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* [http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk Buddhism in London] www.meditateinlondon.org.uk
  
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* [http://www.dhamma.org Vipassana Meditation Website] Worldwide organization offering courses in Vipassana Meditation, derived from the Maha-Satipatthana Sutra.
  
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* [http://www.uwest.edu/UWest/Research%20Center/IAB.htm International Academy of Buddhism]
  
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* [http://www.hsilai.org/ Hsi Lai Temple]
  
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* [http://www.kagyupa.com/ Kvetoslav Minarik's School of Teachings]
  
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* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
  
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* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
  
   
  +
[[Category:Buddhism| ]]
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====Teachings====
  
  +
[[Category:Religious affiliation]]
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* [http://accesstoinsight.org/ Access to Insight]
  
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* [http://www.vipassana.com/ Buddhism in the Theravada tradition] - Scriptures and practical meditation teaching from the Tradition of the Elders.
  
−
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/index.html The Buddha And His Dhamma] the Buddhist Bible by 20th century Indian Buddhist Revivalist Bodhisattva Dr. B. R. [[Ambedkar]]
  
−
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/dhammapada/index.htm "Treasury of Truth"] - illustrated ''[[Dhammapada]]''
  
−
* [http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide.
  
−
* [http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra"] - full text and appreciation of the ''[[Nirvana Sutra]]''
  
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* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
  
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====Other====
  
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* [http://www.buddhanet.net/index.html Buddha Net]
  
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*[http://maps-india.com/india/buddhist-heritage-india.html Buddhist Heritage Places India]
  
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* [http://Buddha.2be.net/ Buddhist Search Directory] The world largest Buddhist directory with full functional search and graphical thumbnail preview.
  
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* [http://www.buddhism.kalachakranet.org/ A View on Buddhism]
  
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* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism] (Seems to contain only romanised terms)
  
−
* [http://www.blpusa.com/English_Booklets.htm Buddhism in Every Step English Booklets]
  
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* [http://users.libero.it/seza/indexgb.html The Flower of Bodhidharma] Deepening Zen
  
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* [http://rywiki.tsadra.org/index.php/Main_Page RangjungYesheWiki]
  
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File:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg

A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found from Sarnath, near Varanasi.

Part of a series on
Buddhism

Lotus-buddha

Buddhism and psychology
Buddhist psychology
Buddhist philosophy
Buddhism and psychoanalysis
Buddhism and psychotherapy

Foundations
Four Noble Truths
Noble Eightfold Path
The Five Precepts
Nirvāna · Three Jewels
Brahmaviharas

Key Concepts
Three marks of existence
Skandha · Cosmology · Dharma
Samsara · Rebirth · Shunyata
Pratitya-samutpada · Karma

Practices and Attainment
Buddhahood · Bodhisattva
Four Stages of Enlightenment
Paramis · Meditation

Buddhism by Region

Schools of Buddhism
Theravāda · Mahāyāna
Vajrayāna · Early schools

Texts
Pali Suttas · Mahayana Sutras
Vinaya · Abhidhamma

Comparative Studies
Culture · List of Topics

Dharma wheel 1

Buddhism is a set of teachings often described as a religion.[1] However, some definitions of religion would exclude it, or some forms of it. Some say it is a body of philosophies influenced by the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as Gautama Buddha.[2] Others say it is teachings to guide one to directly experiencing reality.[3][4] Many recent scholars regard it as a plurality rather than a single entity.[5] Buddhism is also known as Buddha Dharma or Dhamma, which means roughly the "teachings of the Awakened One" in Sanskrit and Pali, languages of ancient Buddhist texts. Buddhism began around 5th century BC with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who was born in Lumbini, Nepal and is hereafter referred to as "the Buddha".

Origin

For a more extensive description, see Gautama Buddha.

Gautama, whose personal name according to later sources was Siddhartha, was born in the city of Lumbini[6] and raised in Kapilavastu, near the modern town of Taulihawa, Nepal.[7] The traditional story of his life is as follows; little of this can be regarded as established historical fact. Born a prince, his father, King Suddhodana, was supposedly visited by a wise man shortly after Siddhartha was born and told that Siddhartha would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a holy man (Sadhu). Determined to make Siddhartha a king, the father tried to shield his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Despite his father's efforts, at the age of 29, he discovered the suffering of his people, first through an encounter with an elderly man. On subsequent trips outside the palace, he encountered various sufferings such as a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and a monk or an ascetic. These are often termed 'The Four Sights.'[8]

Gautama, deeply depressed by these four sights, sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Gautama escaped his palace, leaving behind this royal life to become a mendicant. For a time on his spiritual quest, Buddha "experimented with extreme asceticism, which at that time was seen as a powerful spiritual practice...such as fasting, holding the breath, and exposure of the body to pain...he found, however, that these ascetic practices brought no genuine spiritual benefits and in fact, being based on self-hatred, that they were counterproductive."[9]

After abandoning asceticism and concentrating instead upon meditation and, according to some sources, Anapanasati (awareness of breathing in and out), Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl and then, sitting under a pipal tree or Sacred fig, (Ficus religiosa), now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya,[10][11] he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. His five companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days meditating, at the age of 35, he attained bodhi, also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. After his attainment of bodhi he was known as Buddha or Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life teaching his insights (Dharma).[12] According to scholars, he lived around the fifth century BCE, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.[13] He died around the age of 80 in Kushinagara (Pali Kusinara) (India).[14]

Divisions

The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars[15] divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

An alternative scheme used by some scholars[16]Template:Page number has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language.[17] Some scholars[18] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.

Buddhism today

Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength. While estimates of the number of Buddhist followers range from 230 to 500 million worldwide, most estimates are around 350 million,[19] or 310 million.[20] However, estimates are uncertain for several countries. According to one analysis,[21] Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

File:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg

Typical interior of a temple in Korea

  • Theravāda Buddhism, using Pāli as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Burma. Also the Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar) practices Theravada.
  • East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
  • Tibetan Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in the ethnically Tibetan-dominant regions of China and the surrounding areas in India, Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal, and the Russian Federation
  • Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see Buddhism in the West)

See also Buddhism by country

Some teachings

Other teachings can be found in the sections below on history of Indian Buddhism and the main traditions, and also in separate articles on Zen, Pure Land, Nichiren, Shingon. (Also, Falun Gong is classified sometimes as a form of Buddhism[22], sometimes as a form of Chinese religion[23]).

In Theravada Buddhism, any person who has awakened from the "sleep of ignorance" (by directly realizing the true nature of reality), without instruction, and teaches it to others is called a Buddha, while those who achieve realisations but do not teach others are called paccekabuddhas. All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too. If a person achieves this awakening, he or she is called an arahant. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas before or after him.[24] His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of awakening, also called liberation, or Nirvana.

One of the teachings ascribed to the Buddha regarding the holy life and the goal of liberation is constituted by the "The Four Noble Truths", which focus on dukkha, a term that refers to suffering or the unhappiness ultimately characteristic of unawakened, worldly life. According to the interpretation of earlier Western scholars, followed by many modern Theravadins, the Four Noble Truths regarding suffering state what is its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation.[25] This way to the cessation of suffering is called "The Noble Eightfold Path". However, according to at least some recent scholars,[26] the so-called truths are not statements at all, but "things": suffering and the rest.

Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. Few valid generalizations are possible about all Buddhists.[27]

Bodhi

File:StandingBuddha.JPG

Gautama Buddha, Gandhara, northern Pakistan.

Main article: Bodhi

Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit (बॊधि), lit. awakening) is a term applied in Theravada Buddhism to the experience of Awakening of Arahants, including Buddhas. When used in a generic sense, a buddha is generally considered to be a person who discovers the true nature of reality through (lifetimes of) spiritual cultivation, investigation of the various religious practices of his time, and meditation. This transformational discovery is called Bodhi, which literally means "awakening", but is more commonly called "enlightenment".

In Early Buddhism, Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to Nirvana, using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed),[28] dosa (hate)[29] and moha (delusion).[30] In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the status of nirvana was downgraded, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana, and that one needed the additional and higher attainment of Bodhi to eradicate delusion.[31] The result is that according to Mahayana Buddhism, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Bodhisattva attains Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, and delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called Anagami.

Bodhi is attained when the Four Noble Truths are fully grasped, and all karma has reached cessation. Although the earliest sources do not have any mention of Paramitas,[32][33] the later traditions of Theravada and Mahayana state that one also needs to fulfill the pāramitās. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the compulsive cycle of saṃsāra: birth, suffering, death and rebirth, and attains the "highest happiness" (Nirvana, as described in the Dhammapada). Belief in self (ātmān, Pāli attā) has also been extinguished as part of the eradication of delusion, and Bodhi thus implies understanding of anattā (Sanskrit: Anatman).

Some Mahayana sources contain the idea that a bodhisattva, which in other Mahayana sources is someone on the path to Buddhahood, deliberately refrains from becoming a Buddha in order to help others.

According to a saying in one of the Mahayana sutras, if a person does not aim for Bodhi, one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.[34]

Middle Way

Main article: Middle Way

An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:

  1. It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
  2. It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain metaphysical views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.[35]
  3. An explanation of the state of nirvana and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see Seongcheol).

Refuge in the Three Jewels

Buddha-Footprint

Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra.

Main article: Refuge (Buddhism)

Traditionally, the first step in most forms of Buddhism requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's Three Jewels (Sanskrit: त्रिरत्न Triratna or रत्नत्रय Ratna-traya, Pali: Tiratana).[36] Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion in Buddhism.

The Three Jewels are:

  • The Buddha (i.e.,Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the Tathāgata and Śākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
  • The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
  • The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (pali)—one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.

According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit श्रद्धा śraddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own. The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Saṅgha (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a being beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.

The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: Āryāṣṭāṅgamārgaḥ , Pāli: Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".

  1. There is suffering
  2. There is a cause of suffering — craving
  3. There is the cessation of suffering
  4. There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering — the Noble Eightfold Path

According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment,[37] which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time. The early teaching[38] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada[39] is that these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.[40]

The Noble Eightfold Path

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path
Dharma wheel

The eight-spoked Dharmacakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: Śīla (which concerns wholesome physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and Prajñā (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).

Śīla is morality—abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

  1. Right Speech—One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
  2. Right Actions—Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)
  3. Right Livelihood—One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)

Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

  1. Right Effort/Exercise—One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)
  2. Right Mindfulness/Awareness—Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
  3. Right Concentration/Meditation—Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

  1. Right Understanding—Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. (samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
  2. Right Thoughts—Change in the pattern of thinking.

The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into prajñā (Pāli paññā, wisdom), śīla (Pāli sīla, virtuous behavior) and samādhi (concentration).

Śīla: (Moral cultivation and the precepts)

Main article: Sila

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internally, but also peace in the community, which is externally. According to the Law of Kamma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

Śīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' (five precepts), 'basic morality with asceticism' (eight precepts), 'novice monkhood' (ten precepts) and 'monkhood' (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards sentient life forms)
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft)
3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)
4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)
7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation)

Main article: Samadhi

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). Upon development of samādhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñāna (Pāli ñāṇa knowledge), prajñā (Pāli paññā pure understanding) and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna). When one is in jñāna, it is nibbāna, albeit only temporary because in these states, all defilements are suppressed. Only prajñā or vipassana eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which arahants abide in order to rest.

Prajñā (Wisdom)

Main article: Prajñā

Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining nirvāṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactory), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (devoid of self). Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana.

Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon,[How to reference and link to summary or text] many attaining nirvana upon hearing the Buddha's discourse.

Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (vipassanā, Sanskrit vipaśyanā) meditation [How to reference and link to summary or text] to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

Buddhism and intellectualism

Main article: Reality in Buddhism

According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several philosophical questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing enlightenment.[41] Another is that such questions assume the reality of world/self/person.

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, faith in and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself.

The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (a Mahayana scripture), insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra, a scripture of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."[42] Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice.

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.[43]

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:[44] doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.[45]

Buddhist texts

Template:PaliCanon

Main article: Buddhist texts

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of scripture is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

  • The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
  • The Sūtra Pitaka (Pāli: Sutta Pitaka), contains the actual discourses of the Buddha.
  • The Abhidharma Pitaka (Pāli: Abhidhamma Pitaka) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings—sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)—and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). Ānanda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, and Upāli, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The Theravāda and other Early Buddhist Schools traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the Pāli Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the Mahāyāna sūtras, are also considered by some to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly either were transmitted in secret, or via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nāgas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

Konchog-wangdu

Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but from the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path. That path is explained to be built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism—from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for all future time to help free all other persons and creatures from pain), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (mahatman) in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (mahanirvana). For Theravadins and many scholars[46], however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the Mahayana Sutras does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, scholars have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.[47] this could, however, be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these not a core, merely a preliminary teaching, and the Tibetans never even translated most of the āgamas, though theoretically recognizing them. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen—along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching—into his Buddhist Bible in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his “The Buddha and His Dhamma”. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.

Buddhist symbols

Main article: Buddhist symbolism

The eight auspicious symbols of Mahayana and Vajrayana are:

  • the Parasol (Umbrella)
  • the Golden Fish
  • the Treasure Vase
  • the Lotus
  • the Conch Shell
  • the Endless Knot
  • the Victory Banner
  • the Dharma wheel

Comparative study

This section is a stub. You can help by adding to it. Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, dependent origination is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.

List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies

  • Buddhism and Hinduism
  • Buddhism and Eastern teaching (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
  • God in Buddhism (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
  • Buddhism and Christianity
  • Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
  • Buddhist Ethics (Buddhism and ethics)
  • Buddhism and science (Buddhism and science)
  • Buddhism and psychology
  • Buddhism and Jainism

Criticism

Although Buddhism is generally seen as benign and peaceful in the West, there is some criticism of it, from the anti-religious (atheists) as well as from other religions.

Christians and Muslims often criticize Buddhism for being idolatrous [48]

Many anti-religious people see Buddhism just as (or almost as) superstitious and damaging as any other religion, even though many of its forms are nontheistic or even atheistic[49][50][51]. Christopher Hitchens is a vocal critic of Buddhism and the Dalai Lama [52] [53].

However Richard Dawkins stated in the God Delusion that he regards Buddhism and Confucianism as ethical systems and philosophies rather than religions [54] while Sam Harris practices Buddhist meditation, but does acknowledge that the kamikaze attacks of WWII where inspired by Buddhism [55] and that the term “Buddhism” should be removed entirely and Buddhist meditation should leave the realm of religion and enter the realm of science [56]. These three are considered three of the four "Four Horsemen" of the "New Atheism" [57][58].

See also

.

References

Wikisource-logo
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Buddhism.
  • Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, 1984
  • Berzin, Alexander. Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan. Berzin Archives.
  • Cousins, L. S. (1996). The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Series 3 (6.1): 57-63.; reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
  • Davidson, Ronald M. (2003). Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289223-1.
  • Harvey, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52-131333-3.
  • Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French) (1976). Teaching of Vimalakirti, trans. Sara Boin, XCIII, London: Pali Text Society.
  • Skilton, Andrew (1997). A Concise History of Buddhism, Windhorse Publications.
  • Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations, London: Routledge.
  • Williams, Paul (ed.), Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York, 2005

Suggested reading

Sarunya Prasopchingchana & Dana Sugu, 'Distinctiveness of the Unseen Buddhist Identity' (International Journal of Humanistic Ideology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, vol. 4, 2010)

  • Donath, Dorothy C. (1971). Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day, Julian Press. ISBN 0-07-017533-0.
  • Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English, Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-321-4. Also available on-line: [3] [4] [5]
  • Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions, Oxford University Press.
  • Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The Vision of the Buddha, Duncan Baird Publishers. ISBN 1-903296-91-9.
  • Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen, Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-520-4.
  • Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists, Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distibuted by Wisdom Books
  • Nattier, Jan (2003). A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha), University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2607-8.
  • Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. (1982). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction, Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-01027-X.
  • Sinha, H.P. (1993). Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy), Motilal Banarasidas Publ.. ISBN 81-208-2144-0.
  • Smith, Huston; Phillip Novak (2003). Buddhism: A Concise Introduction, HarperSanFrancisco.
  • Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001). Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha (3rd ed., rev.).
  • Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books, 1974.
ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
  • Thurman, Robert A. F. (translator) (1976). Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture, Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-00601-3.
  • Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press, 1974.
ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
  • White, Kenneth, The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005.
ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
  • Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page. The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000).
  • Yin Shun, Yeung H. Wing (translator), The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master, Wisdom Publications, 1998.
ISBN 0-86171-133-5.


  • Jewels of the Doctrine (Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century)/ Ranjini/ Sri Satguru Publications

Notes

  1. ↑ Chambers Dictionary, 2006; Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 2003; New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, 1998; Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification; [1]
  2. ↑ see, for example, Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna
  3. ↑ For example: Thich Nhat Hanh, Old Path White Clouds For example: Dorothy Figen, Is Buddhism a Religion? http://www.buddhistinformation.com/is_buddhism_a_religion1.htm
  4. ↑ For example: Narada Thera, Buddhism in a Nutshell, http://www.buddhanet.net/nutshell03.htm
  5. ↑ Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism,page 2; Robinson et al., Buddhist Religions, 5th edn, Wadsworth, Belmont, California, 2004
  6. ↑ For instance, see the UNESCO webpage entitled, "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha". See also Gethin Foundations, p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."
  7. ↑ For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a rājan—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) on what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (Theravada Buddhism, p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of the Buddha, ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources
  8. ↑ http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights "On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights brought home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death...on his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."
  9. ↑ http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening
  10. ↑ see: http://web.archive.org/20040629075505/www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html The Bodhi Tree
  11. ↑ http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm Bodhi leaf
  12. ↑ Skilton, Concise, p. 25
  13. ↑ Cousins, Dating.
  14. ↑ "the reputed place of Buddha's death and cremation,"Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara
  15. ↑ (Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984);

    Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."

    Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West."

  16. ↑ Smith, Buddhism; Juergensmeyer, Oxford Handbook. In addition, Gethin, Foundations, pp. 1–5, could be used to support the use of this bipartite classification scheme to the degree that he identifies that both East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism have a "general outlook" of the Mahāyāna tradition, although Tibetan Buddhism's "specific orientation" is Tantric Buddhism.
  17. ↑ "Tibetan Buddhism". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. (2004). Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved on 2007-07-07. 
  18. ↑ See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff
  19. ↑ Adherants.com. Major Religions Ranked By Size. URL accessed on 2007-07-31.
  20. ↑ Jones, Judy; William Wilson (2006). "Religion" An Incomplete Education, 3rd edition, 473, Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-7394-7582-9.
  21. ↑ Garfinkel, Perry (December 2005). Buddha Rising. National Geographic: 88-109.
  22. ↑ World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 2, page 10
  23. ↑ [2]
  24. ↑ See for example: http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1469959 Buddhas of the past and future
  25. ↑ See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html The Four Noble Truths
  26. ↑ Gethin, Foundations, page 60
  27. ↑ Gombrich, Richard F. (1988). Theravada Buddhism, 2nd, 2, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  28. ↑ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
  29. ↑ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
  30. ↑ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
  31. ↑ An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67
  32. ↑ ‘It is evident that the Hinayanists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it, incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of paramitas. This was effected by the production of new literature: the Jatakas and Avadanas.' Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, p. 251. The term 'Semi-Mahayana' occurs here as a subtitle
  33. ↑ ‘[the Theravadins’] early literature did not refer to the paramitas.’ Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, Dutt, p. 228
  34. ↑ Norbu, Chogyal Namkhai (2000). The Crystal and the Way of Light: Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen, 164, Snow Lion Publications.
  35. ↑ Kohn, Shambhala, pp. 131, 143
  36. ↑ Bhikku, Thanissaro (2001). Refuge. An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha. Access to Insight.
  37. ↑ Thera, Piyadassi (1999). "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta" The Book of Protection, Buddhist Publication Society. In the Buddha's first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, he talks about the Middle Way, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths.
  38. ↑ Harvey, Introduction, p. 47
  39. ↑ Hinnels, John R. (1998). The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, London: Penguin Books.,pages 393f
  40. ↑ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 92
  41. ↑ MN 72 (Thanissaro, 1997). For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see Thanissaro (2004).
  42. ↑ The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.
  43. ↑ Philosophy East and West, volume Twenty-Six, page 138
  44. ↑ Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989, page 2
  45. ↑ Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, page 395
  46. ↑ for example: A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edtion (2000), p. 4
  47. ↑ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)
  48. ↑ Islam and Buddhism – Harun Yahyah, http://www.harunyahya.com/buddhism02.php
  49. ↑ "Is Buddhism Atheistic?", http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/beliefs/atheism.htm
  50. ↑ "Buddhism is Atheist", http://www.vexen.co.uk/religion/buddhism_atheism.html
  51. ↑ "Buddhism and Atheism", http://atheism.about.com/b/2005/11/28/buddhism-and-atheism.htm
  52. ↑ ”There is No Eastern Solution", god Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Christopher Hitchens
  53. ↑ "His Material Highness" by Christopher Hitchens, http://www.salon.com/news/1998/07/13news
  54. ↑ The God Delusion, Richard Dawkins
  55. ↑ ”Ch. 7: Experiments in Consciousness”, The End of Faith, Sam Harris
  56. ↑ Killing the Buddha by Sam Harris, http://www.samharris.org/media/killing_the_buddha.pdf
  57. ↑ http://richarddawkins.net/article,2025,THE-FOUR-HORSEMEN,Discussions-With-Richard-Dawkins-Episode-1-RDFRS
  58. ↑ http://daviddent.net/blog/2007/06/17/the-four-horsemen-of-the-new-atheism/

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