Attachment theory

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Attachment theory is a theory, or group of theories, about the psychological tendency to seek closeness to another person, to feel secure when that person is present, and to feel anxious when that person is absent. The origin of attachment theory can be traced to the publication of two 1958 papers, one being John Bowlby's "the Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother", in which the precursory concepts of "attachment" were introduced, and Harry Harlow's "the Nature of Love", as based on the results of experiments which showed, approximately, that infant rhesus monkeys preferred emotional attachment over food.

Overview

Attachment theory, from one perspective, has its origins in the observation of and experiments with young animals. In the 1950s, a famous series of experiments on infant monkeys by Harlow and Harlow demonstrated that attachment is not a simple reaction to internal drives such as hunger. In these experiments, young monkeys were separated from their mother shortly after birth. They were offered two dolls to serve as surrogates to the mother. The first doll had a body of wire mesh. The second doll had a body of terry cloth and foam rubber. Both dolls could provide food by attaching a milk bottle to their chests.

The experiment was designed to see if the monkeys would cling to the doll providing the soft contact of cloth or to the doll providing the source of food. It turned out that the monkeys would cling to the soft-clothed doll, irrespective of whether it provided food. The monkeys also explored more when the soft-cloth doll was near. Apparently, the doll provided them with a sense of security. However, the passive doll was not an adequate alternative for a real mother. Infant monkeys which were raised without contact with other monkeys showed abnormal behavior in social situations. They were either very fearful of other monkeys or responded with unprovoked aggression when they encountered other monkeys. They also showed abnormal sexual responses. Female monkeys who were raised in isolation often neglected or abused their infants. This abnormal behaviour is thought to demonstrate that a bond with the mother is necessary for further social development.

Much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates, such as Mary Ainsworth. These early studies focused on attachment between children and caregivers. Attachment theory was later extended to adult romantic relationships by Cindy Hazen and Phillip Shaver.

Basic attachment theory

Attachment of children to caregivers

Main article: Attachment in children

Attachment theory has led to a new understanding of child development. Children develop different styles of attachment based on experiences and interactions with their caregivers. Four different attachment styles have been identified in children: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health, treatment of children, and related fields. Many evidence-based treatment approaches are based on attachment theory (see section below)

Attachment in adult romantic relationships

Main article: Attachment in adults

Attachment theory was extended to adult romantic relationships in the late 1980's. Four attachment styles have been identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant. Investigators have explored the organization and the stability of mental working models that underlie these attachment styles. They have also explored how attachment impacts relationship outcomes and how attachment functions in relationship dynamics (e.g., affect regulation, support, intimacy, jealousy).

Attachment measures

Main article: Attachment measures

Researchers have developed various ways of assessing attachment in children, including the Strange Situation and story-based approaches such as Attachment Story Completion Test. These methods allow children to be classified into four attachment styles: secure, axnious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Attachment in adults is commonly measured using the Adult Attachment Interview and self-report questionnaires. Self-report questionnaires have identified two dimensions of attachment, one dealing with anxiety about the relationship, and the other dealing with avoidance in the relationship. These dimensions define four styles of adult attachment: secure, preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant.

Attachment theory in clinical practice

Attachment disorder

Main article: Attachment disorder

Attachment disorder refers to the failure to form normal attachments with caregivers during childhood. This can have adverse effects throughout the lifespan. Clinicians have identified several signs of attachment problems. Attachment problems can be resolved at older ages through appropriate therapeutic interventions. Reputable interventions include Theraplay and Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy.

Reactive attachment disorder

Main article: Reactive attachment disorder

Reactive attachment disorder, sometimes called "RAD", is a psychiatric diagnosis (DSM-IV 313.89, ICD-10 F94.1/2). The essential feature of Reactive attachment disorder is markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts that begins before age 5 years and is associated with gross pathological care.

Dyadic developmental psychotherapy

Main article: Dyadic developmental psychotherapy

Dyadic developmental psychotherapy is an evidence-based treatment approach for the treatment of attachment disorder and reactive attachment disorder. Children who have experienced pervasive and extensive trauma, neglect, loss, and/or other dysregulating experiences can benefit from this treatment. Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy is based on principles derived from attachment theory.

Theraplay

Main article: Theraplay

Theraplay is a play therapy which has the intention of helping parents and children build better attachment relationships through attachment-based play. It was developed in 1967 by the Psychological Services staff of a Head Start program in Chicago. Theraplay is based on model of healthy parent-infant attachment and interactions.

See also

Affectional bond Attachment & Human Development (a professional peer-reviewed journal) Attachment disorder Attachment in adults Attachment in children Attachment measures Attachment Therapy Complex Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy Erik Erikson

Human bonding Infant Mental Health (a professional peer-reviewed journal) Jean Piaget Jerome Kagan John Bowlby Mary Ainsworth Melanie Klein Object relations theory Reactive attachment disorder Sigmund Freud Theraplay

Additional material

Books

• Ainsworth, M. and Bowlby, J. (1965). Child Care and the Growth of Love. London: Penguin Books.

• Andersson, P. (2006) Determinants of Individual Vulnerability to Heroin Addiction – A Psychosocial Study. A Doctoral thesis, Åbo Akademi University. ISBN 952-12-1677-8.

• Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D., (Eds). (2005) Creating Capacity for Attachment. Wood N Barnes, Oklahoma City, OK. ISBN 1-885473-72-9

• Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P., (Eds). (1999) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. Guilford Press, NY.

• Greenberg, MT, Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, EM., (Eds) (1990) Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research and Intervention University of Chicago, Chicago.

• Greenspan, S. (1993) Infancy and Early Childhood. Madison, CT: International Universities Press. ISBN 0-8236-2633-4.

• Holmes, J. (1993) John Bowlby and Attachment Theory. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07730-3.

• Holmes, J. (2001) The Search for the Secure Base: Attachment Theory and Psychotherapy. London: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 1-58391-152-9.

• Karen R (1998) Becoming Attached: First Relationships and How They Shape Our Capacity to Love. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511501-5.

• Parkes, CM, Stevenson-Hinde, J., Marris, P., (Eds.) (1991) Attachment Across The Life Cycle Routledge. NY. ISBN 0-415-05651-9

• Siegler R., DeLoache, J. & Eisenberg, N. (2003) How Children develop. New York: Worth. ISBN 1-57259-249-4.

• Sturt, SM (Ed) (2006). New Developments in Child Abuse Research Nove, NY. ISBN 1-59454-980-X

Papers

• Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1979) Attachment as related to mother-infant interaction, Advances in the Study of Behaviour, 9: 2-52.

• Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E. and Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

External links

• Information on effective treatment for attachment disorders and training for professionals. Information on Dyadic Devvelopmental Psychotherapy
• Parenting: Attachment, Bonding and Reactive Attachment Disorder
• Relationship Advice: How Understanding Adult Attachment Can Help
• Attachment Questionnaire

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