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| − | == Origins of the name == |
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| − | The term “ethology” derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] language, as [[ethos]] (''ήθος'') is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "[[custom]]". Other words that derive from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word "ethos" are: "ethics" and "ethical." The term was first popularised in English by the American William Morton Wheeler in [[1902]]. An earlier, slightly different sense of the term was proposed by John Stuart Mill in his [[1843]] <cite>System of Logic</cite>. He recommended the development of a new science, "ethology," whose purpose would be the explanation of individual and national differences in character, on the basis of [[associationism|associationistic]] [[psychology]]. This use of the word was never adopted, however. |
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== Differences and similarities with comparative psychology == |
== Differences and similarities with comparative psychology == |
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| − | Ethology can be contrasted with [[comparative psychology]], which also studies animal behaviour, but construes its study as a branch of [[psychology]]. Thus where comparative psychology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]]. Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of learning, and thus tended to look at behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do lead to different perspectives and sometimes to conflicts of opinion about matters of substance. In addition, for most of the twentieth century comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe, and this led to different emphases as well as somewhat different philosophical underpinnings in the two disciplines. A practical difference is that comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species, while ethologists were more interested in gaining knowledge of behaviour in a wide range of species, not least in order to be able to make principled comparisons across taxonomic groups |
+ | Ethology can be contrasted with [[comparative psychology]], which also studies animal behaviour, but construes its study as a branch of [[psychology]]. Thus where comparative psychology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]]. Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of [[learning]], and thus tended to look at behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do lead to different perspectives and sometimes to conflicts of opinion about matters of substance. In addition, for most of the twentieth century comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe, and this led to different emphases as well as somewhat different philosophical underpinnings in the two disciplines. A practical difference is that comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species, while ethologists were more interested in gaining knowledge of behaviour in a wide range of species, not least in order to be able to make principled comparisons across taxonomic groups. |
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| − | == Darwinism and the beginnings of ethology == |
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| − | Because ethology is understood as a branch of [[biology]], ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behaviour and the understanding of behaviour in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]]. In one sense the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book <cite>The expression of the emotions in animals and men</cite> influenced many ethologists. However, he pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé [[George Romanes]], who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method that did not gain scientific support. The early ethologists, such as [[Oskar Heinroth]] and [[Julian Huxley]] instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called [[instinct]]ive, or natural, in that they occur in all members of a [[species]] under specified circumstances. Their first step in studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an '''ethogram''', a description of the main types of natural behaviour with their frequencies of occurrence. This approach provided an objective, cumulative base of data about behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and build on, and as a way of building a science of behaviour, it proved much more fruitful. |
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| − | == The fixed action pattern and animal communication == |
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| − | An important step, associated with the name of [[Konrad Lorenz]] though probably due more to his teacher, Heinroth, was the identification of [[fixed action pattern]]s (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli (called '''sign stimuli''' or '''releasing stimuli'''). These FAPs could then be compared across species, and the similarities and differences between behaviour compared with the similarities and differences in [[morphology (biology)]] on which taxonomy was based. An important and much quoted study of the [[Anatidae]] (ducks and geese) by Heinroth used this technique. The ethologists noted that the stimuli that released FAPs were commonly features of the appearance or behaviour of other members of their own species, and they were able to show how important forms of [[animal communication]] could be mediated by a few simple FAPs. The most sophisticated investigation of this kind was the study by [[Karl von Frisch]] of the so-called “dance language” underlying [[bee learning and communication|bee communication]]. Lorenz developed an interesting theory of the evolution of animal communication based on his observations of the nature of fixed action patterns and the circumstances in which animals emit them. |
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| + | For more see: [[Introduction to animal ethology]] |
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| + | ==Main areas of study== |
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| − | A second important finding of Lorenz concerned the early learning of young [[nidifugous]] birds, a process he called [[imprinting (psychology)|imprinting]]. Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as [[goose|geese]] and [[chicken]]s spontaneously followed their mothers from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this following response could be transferred to an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus was presented during a '''critical period''' (now called a '''sensitive period''') that covered the few days after hatching. The concept of imprinting has been widely adopted in [[developmental psychology]]. |
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| + | The main areas of study within the discipline include: |
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| − | == Tinbergen's four questions for ethologists == |
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| + | *[[Animal innate behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal defensive behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal division of labour]] |
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| + | **[[Animal drinking behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal feeding behaviour]] |
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| + | **[[Animal exploratory behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal grooming behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal hoarding behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal instinctive behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal licking behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal nocturnal behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal motivation]] |
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| + | **[[Animal predatory behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal scent marking]] |
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| + | **[[Migratory behavior (animal)]] |
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| + | *[[Animal open field behavior]] |
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| − | Lorenz’s collaborator, [[Niko Tinbergen]], argued that ethology always needed to pay attention to four kinds of explanation of any instance of behaviour: |
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| + | **[[Alarm responses]] |
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| + | **[[Animal breeding]] |
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| + | **[[Animal foraging behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal homing]] |
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| + | **[[Animal locomotion]] |
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| + | **[[Animal navigation]] |
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| + | **[[Migratory behaviour (animal)]] |
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| + | *[[Animal physiological psychology]] |
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| − | * Function: how does the behaviour impact on the animal’s chances of survival and reproduction? |
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| + | **[[Animal biological rhythms]] |
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| − | * Causation: what are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning? |
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| + | **[[Animal circadian rythms]] |
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| − | * Development: how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown? |
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| + | **[[Animal colouration]] |
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| − | * Evolutionary history: how does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have arisen through the process of [[phylogeny]]? |
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| + | **[[Animal drinking behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal emotionality]] |
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| + | **[[Animal feeding behavior]] |
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| + | *[[Animal sexual behavior]] |
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| − | == The flowering of ethology == |
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| + | **[[Animal courtship behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal courtship displays]] |
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| + | **[[Animal sex differences]] |
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| + | **[[Animal sexual receptivity]] |
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| + | **[[Animal mating behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal mate selection]] |
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| + | *[[Animal rearing]] |
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| − | Through the work of Lorenz and Tinbergen, ethology developed strongly in continental Europe in the years before [[World War II]]. After the war, Tinbergen moved to the [[University of Oxford]], and ethology became stronger in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], with the additional influence of William Thorpe, [[Robert Hinde]] and [[Patrick Bateson]] at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of the [[University of Cambridge]], located in the village of [[Madingley]]. In this period, too, ethology began to develop strongly in [[North America]]. |
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| + | **[[Animal maternal behavior]] - |
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| + | **[[Animal maternal deprivation]] - |
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| + | **[[Animal parental behavior]] - |
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| + | **[[Animal paternal behaviour]] - |
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| + | **[[Animal play]] |
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| + | **[[Nestbuilding]] |
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| + | *[[Animal social behavior]] |
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| − | Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[1973]] for their work in developing ethology. |
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| + | **[[Animal defensive behavior]] |
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| + | **[[Animal distress calls]] |
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| + | **[[Animal dominance]] |
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| + | **[[Animal communication]] |
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| + | **[[Animal vocalizations]] |
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| + | **[[Species recognition]] |
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| + | **[[Territorality]] |
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| + | *[[Animals and man]] |
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| − | == Social ethology and recent developments == |
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| + | **[[Animal assisted therapy]] - |
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| + | **[[Animal breeding]] |
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| + | **[[Animal captivity]] |
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| + | **[[Animal domestication]] |
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| + | **[[Animal human interaction]] |
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| + | **[[Animal rearing]] |
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| + | **[[Pets]] |
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| + | **[[Interspecies interaction]] |
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| + | ----- |
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| − | In [[1970]], the [[England|English]] ethologist [[John H. Crook]] published an important paper in which he distinguished '''comparative ethology''' from '''social ethology''', and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology, looking at animals as individuals, whereas in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them. This was prescient. [[E. O. Wilson]]’s book ‘’[[Sociobiology]]’’ appeared in [[1975]], and since that time the study of behaviour has been much more concerned with social aspects. It has also been driven by the stronger, but more sophisticated, Darwinism associated with Wilson and [[Richard Dawkins]]. The related development of [[behavioral ecology]] has also helped transform ethology. At the same time a substantial rapprochement with comparative psychology has occurred, so the modern scientific study of behaviour offers a more or less seamless spectrum of approaches, from [[animal cognition]], more traditional [[comparative psychology]], ethology, [[sociobiology]] and [[behavioural ecology]]. |
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| + | *[[Alarm responses]] |
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| + | *[[Animal environments]] |
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| + | *[[Animal motivation]] |
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| + | *[[Biological symbiosis]] |
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| + | *[[Echolocation]] |
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| + | *[[Fossil behavior]] |
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| + | *[[Hibernation]] |
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| + | *[[Instinctive behavior]] |
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| + | *[[Licking]] |
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| + | *[[Species common behaviors]] |
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| + | *[[Stereotyped behavior]] |
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| + | *[[Tool use]] |
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| + | ==References & Bibliography== |
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| − | == Notes == |
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| + | <References/> |
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| + | ==Key texts== |
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| + | ===Books=== |
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| + | *Bekoff, M (2004) Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. 3vols. Greenwood Press. |
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| + | *Grzimek, B.(1977), Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Ethology |
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| + | *McFarland, D.(1999). Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology, Ethology and Evolution. Longman. ISBN: 0582327326 ISBN: 9780582327320 |
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| + | ===Papers=== |
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| − | * There are often mismatches between human senses and those of the organisms they are observing. To compensate, ethologists often reach all the way back to [[epistemology]] to give them the tools to predict and avoid misinterpretation of data. |
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| + | ==Additional material== |
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| − | == List of ethologists == |
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| + | ===Books=== |
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| + | *Drickamer, L. & Dewsbury, D. ( ), Leaders in Animal Behaviour. The Second Generation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9780521741293 |
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| + | *Dewsbury, D. A. (1978) Habits and behaviour of Animals : McGraw-Hill,New York ; London. ISBN: 0070166730 |
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| + | ===Papers=== |
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| − | People who have made notable contributions to the field of ethology: |
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| − | {| width=100% |
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| − | | valign=top width=33% | |
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| − | * [[George Barlow]] |
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| − | * [[Patrick Bateson]] |
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| − | * [[John Bowlby]] |
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| − | * [[John H. Crook]] |
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| − | * [[Charles Darwin]] |
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| − | * [[Richard Dawkins]] |
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| − | * [[Iräneus Eibl-Eibesfeldt]] |
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| − | * [[Dian Fossey]] |
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| − | * [[Karl von Frisch]] |
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| − | * [[Jane Goodall]] |
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| − | | valign=top width=34% | |
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| − | * [[Oskar Heinroth]] |
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| − | * [[Robert Hinde]] |
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| − | * [[Julian Huxley]] |
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| − | * [[Julian Jaynes]] |
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| − | * [[Paul Leyhausen]] |
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| − | * [[Konrad Lorenz]] |
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| − | * [[Aubrey Manning]] |
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| − | * [[Desmond Morris]] |
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| − | * [[Ivan Pavlov]] |
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| − | | valign=top width=33% | |
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| − | * [[George Romanes]] |
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| − | * [[B. F. Skinner]] |
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| − | * [[Marian Stamp Dawkins]] |
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| − | * [[William Homan Thorpe]] |
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| − | * [[Niko Tinbergen]] |
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| − | * [[Jakob von Uexküll]] |
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| − | * [[Frans de Waal]] |
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| − | * [[William Morton Wheeler]] |
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| − | * [[E. O. Wilson]] |
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| − | |} |
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| ⚫ | |||
| + | ==External links== |
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| − | * [[Altruism in animals]] |
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| + | *[CSA Animal Behavior Abstracts] - A Cambridge Scientific Abstracts Database covering all aspects of animal behaviour, including neurophysiology, behavioral ecology, genetics, applied ethology and other related areas.From !982 onwards |
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| − | * [[List of publications in biology#Ethology|Important publications in ethology]] |
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| + | *[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Animal_Behavior Wikibook on animal behavior] |
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| − | [[Category:Behavioural sciences]] |
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| − | [[Category:Zoology| ethology]] |
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| − | [[bg:Етология]] |
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| − | [[ca:Etologia]] |
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| − | [[cs:Etologie]] |
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| − | [[da:Etologi]] |
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| − | [[de:Ethologie]] |
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| − | [[es:Etología]] |
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| − | [[eo:Etologio]] |
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| − | [[fr:Éthologie]] |
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| − | [[fy:Gedrachsbiology]] |
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| − | [[gl:Etoloxía]] |
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| − | [[ko:행동 생물학]] |
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| − | [[id:Etologi]] |
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| − | [[ia:Ethologia]] |
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| − | [[he:אתולוגיה]] |
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| − | [[lt:Etologija]] |
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| − | [[hu:Etológia]] |
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| − | [[nl:Ethologie]] |
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| − | [[no:Etologi]] |
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| − | [[ja:動物行動学]] |
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| − | [[pl:Etologia]] |
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| − | [[pt:Etologia]] |
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| − | [[ru:Этология]] |
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| − | [[sv:Etologi]] |
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| − | [[tl:Etolohiya]] |
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| − | [[vi:Tập tính học]] |
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| − | [[tr:Etoloji]] |
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| ⚫ | |||
| − | {{enWP| Ethology}} |
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Latest revision as of 10:03, 3 October 2013
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Animals · Animal ethology · Comparative psychology · Animal models · Outline · Index
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior. A scientist who practices ethology is called an ethologist.
Differences and similarities with comparative psychology
Ethology can be contrasted with comparative psychology, which also studies animal behaviour, but construes its study as a branch of psychology. Thus where comparative psychology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal anatomy and physiology. Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of learning, and thus tended to look at behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do lead to different perspectives and sometimes to conflicts of opinion about matters of substance. In addition, for most of the twentieth century comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe, and this led to different emphases as well as somewhat different philosophical underpinnings in the two disciplines. A practical difference is that comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species, while ethologists were more interested in gaining knowledge of behaviour in a wide range of species, not least in order to be able to make principled comparisons across taxonomic groups.
For more see: Introduction to animal ethology
Main areas of study
The main areas of study within the discipline include:
- Animal innate behavior
- Animal defensive behavior
- Animal division of labour
- Animal drinking behavior
- Animal escape behaviour
- Animal feeding behaviour
- Animal exploratory behavior
- Animal grooming behavior
- Animal hoarding behavior
- Animal instinctive behavior
- Animal licking behavior
- Animal nocturnal behavior
- Animal motivation
- Animal predatory behavior
- Animal scent marking
- Migratory behavior (animal)
- Animal physiological psychology
- Animals and man
See also
- Alarm responses
- Animal environments
- Animal motivation
- Biological symbiosis
- Echolocation
- Fossil behavior
- Hibernation
- Instinctive behavior
- Imprinting
- Licking
- Species common behaviors
- Stereotyped behavior
- Tool use
References & Bibliography
Key texts
Books
- Bekoff, M (2004) Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. 3vols. Greenwood Press.
- Grzimek, B.(1977), Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Ethology
- McFarland, D.(1999). Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology, Ethology and Evolution. Longman. ISBN: 0582327326 ISBN: 9780582327320
Papers
Additional material
Books
- Drickamer, L. & Dewsbury, D. ( ), Leaders in Animal Behaviour. The Second Generation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9780521741293
- Dewsbury, D. A. (1978) Habits and behaviour of Animals : McGraw-Hill,New York ; London. ISBN: 0070166730
Papers
External links
- [CSA Animal Behavior Abstracts] - A Cambridge Scientific Abstracts Database covering all aspects of animal behaviour, including neurophysiology, behavioral ecology, genetics, applied ethology and other related areas.From !982 onwards
- Wikibook on animal behavior