Psychology Wiki
Register
Advertisement

Assessment | Biopsychology | Comparative | Cognitive | Developmental | Language | Individual differences | Personality | Philosophy | Social |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |

Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)


Zidovudine chemical structure
Zidovudine

1-[(2R,4S,5S)- 4-azido-5-(hydroxymethyl) oxolan-2-yl]- 5-methyl-pyrimidine-2,4-dione
IUPAC name
CAS number
30516-87-1
ATC code

J05AF01

PubChem
35370
DrugBank
APRD00449
Chemical formula {{{chemical_formula}}}
Molecular weight 267.242 g/mol
Bioavailability near complete absoprtion, following first-pass metabolism systemic availability 65% (range 52 to 75%)
Metabolism Hepatic
Elimination half-life 0.5 to 3 hours
Excretion Renal
Pregnancy category {{{pregnancy_category}}}
Legal status
Routes of administration Oral

Zidovudine (INN) or azidothymidine (AZT) (also called ZDV) is an antiretroviral drug, the first approved for treatment of HIV. It is also sold under the names Retrovir® and Retrovis®, and as an ingredient in Combivir® and Trizivir®. It is an analog of thymidine.

History[]

Zidovudine was the first drug approved for the treatment of AIDS and HIV infection. Jerome Horwitz of Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute and Wayne State University School of Medicine first synthesized AZT in 1964, under a US National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant. It was originally intended to treat cancer, but failed to show efficacy and had an unacceptably high side effect profile. The drug then faded from view until February 1985, when Samuel Broder, Hiroaki Mitsuya, and Robert Yarchoan, three scientists in the National Cancer Institute (NCI), collaborating with Janet Rideout and several other scientists at Burroughs Wellcome (now GlaxoSmithKline), started working on it as an AIDS drug. After showing that this drug was an effective agent against HIV in vitro, the team conducted the initial clinical trial that provided evidence that it could increase CD4 counts in AIDS patients.

A placebo-controlled randomized trial of AZT was subsequently conducted by Burroughs-Wellcome, in which it was shown that AZT could prolong the life of patients with AIDS. Burroughs Wellcome Co. filed for a patent on AZT in 1985. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug (via the then-new FDA accelerated approval system) for use against HIV, AIDS, and AIDS Related Complex (ARC, a now-defunct medical term for pre-AIDS illness) on March 20 1987, and then as a preventive treatment in 1990. It was initially administered in much higher dosages than today, typically 400 mg every four hours (even at night). However, the unavailability at that time of alternatives to treat AIDS affected the risk/benefit ratio, with the certain toxicity of HIV infection outweighing the risk of drug toxicity. One of AZT's side effects includes anemia, a common complaint in early trials.

Modern treatment regimens typically use lower dosages (e.g. 300 mg) two to three times a day. As of 1996, AZT, like other antiretroviral drugs, is almost always used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). That is, it is combined with other drugs in order to prevent mutation of HIV into an AZT-resistant form.[1][2]

The crystal structure of AZT was reported by Alan Howie (Aberdeen University) in 1988.[3] In the solid state AZT forms a hydrogen bond network. Note that AZT is based upon a sugar.

Prophylaxis[]

Azt crystal

A crystal of AZT, viewed under polarized light

AZT may be used in combination with other antiretroviral medications to substantially reduce the risk of HIV infection following a significant exposure to the virus (such as a needle-stick injury involving blood or body fluids from an individual known to be infected with HIV).[4]

AZT is also recommended as part of a regimen to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during pregnancy, labor and delivery.[5] With no treatment, approximately 25% of infants whose mothers are infected with HIV will become infected. AZT has been shown to reduce this risk to approximately 8% when given in a three-part regimen during pregnancy, delivery and to the infant for 6 weeks after birth.[6] Use of appropriate combinations of antiretroviral medications and cesarean section when necessary can further reduce mother-child transmission of HIV to 1-2%.

Side effects[]

Common side effects of AZT include nausea, headache, changes in body fat, and discoloration of fingernails and toenails. More severe side effects include anaemia and bone marrow suppression. These unwanted side effects might be caused by the sensitivity of the γ-DNA polymerase in the cell mitochondria. AZT has been shown to work additively or synergistically with many anti-HIV agents; however, acyclovir and ribavirin decrease the antiviral effect of AZT. Drugs that inhibit hepatic glucuronidation, such as indomethacin, acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) and trimethoprim, decrease the elimination rate and increase the toxicity.[7]

Viral resistance[]

AZT does not destroy the HIV infection, but only delays the progression of the disease and the replication of virus, even at very high doses. During prolonged AZT treatment HIV has the ability to gain an increased resistance to AZT by mutation of the reverse transcriptase. A study showed that AZT could not impede the resumption of virus production, and eventually cells treated with AZT produced viruses as much as the untreated cells. So as to slow the development of resistance, it is generally recommended that AZT be given in combination with another reverse transcriptase inhibitor and an antiretroviral from another group, such as a protease inhibitor or a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor.

Mode of action[]

Azt pills

AZT in oral and injectable form

Like other reverse transcriptase inhibitors, AZT works by inhibiting the action of reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that HIV uses to make a DNA copy of its RNA. The viral double-stranded DNA is subsequently spliced into the DNA of a target cell, where it is called a provirus.[8][9][10]

The azido group increases the lipophilic nature of AZT, allowing it to cross cell membranes easily by diffusion and thereby also to cross the blood-brain barrier. Cellular enzymes convert AZT into the effective 5'-triphosphate form. Studies have shown that the termination of the formed DNA chains is the specific factor in the inhibitory effect.

The triphosphate form also has some ability to inhibit cellular DNA polymerase, which is used by normal cells as part of cell division.[11][12][13] However, AZT has a 100- to 300-fold greater affinity for the HIV reverse transcriptase, as compared to the human DNA polymerase, accounting for its selective antiviral activity.[14] A special kind of cellular DNA polymerase that replicates the DNA in mitochondria is relatively more sensitive to inhibition by AZT, and this accounts for certain toxicities such as damage to cardiac and other muscles (also called myositis).[15][16][17][18][19]

Controversy[]

AZT has been the target of some controversy due to the nature of the patent process[20] and as part of Dr. Peter Duesberg's challenge to the virus-AIDS hypothesis.

Patent issues[]

In 1991, Public Citizen filed a lawsuit claiming that the AZT/Zidovudine patent was invalid. The United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled in 1992 in favour of Burroughs-Wellcome, the licensee of the patent.[21] The court ruled that the challenge of the citizen group was not the correct approach to evaluate the underlying validity of the patent which was already being litigated in another suit. [22] In 2002, another lawsuit was filed over the patent by the AIDS Healthcare Foundation.

However, the patent expired in 2005 (placing AZT in the public domain), allowing other drug companies to manufacture and market generic AZT without having to pay GlaxoSmithKline any royalties. The U.S. FDA has since approved four generic forms of AZT for sale in the U.S.

Peter Duesberg's claims[]

See also: AIDS reappraisal
See also: Duesberg hypothesis

Dr. Peter Duesberg claims that AZT or other immunosuppressive drugs (nitrite inhalants, cocaine, amphetamines, etc.), rather than HIV, cause AIDS in Western countries.[23] Most scientists believe that Duesberg's claims are contradicted by an overwhelming amount of clinical and epidemiological evidence.[24]

See also[]

Footnotes[]

  1. De Clercq E (1994). HIV resistance to reverse transcriptase inhibitors.. Biochem Pharmacol 47 (2): 155-69. PMID 7508227.
  2. Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Broder S (1988). AIDS therapies.. Sci Am 259 (4): 110-9. PMID 3072667.
  3. Dr. Alan Howie. Dr Alan Howie. University of Aberdeen. URL accessed on 2006-01-18.
  4. Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HIV. URL accessed on 2006-03-29.
  5. Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health. URL accessed on 2006-03-29.
  6. Connor E, Sperling R, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O'Sullivan M, VanDyke R, Bey M, Shearer W, Jacobson R (1994). Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group.. N Engl J Med 331 (18): 1173-80. PMID 7935654.
  7. ZIDOVUDINE (AZT) - ORAL (Retrovir) side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions. MedicineNet. URL accessed on 2006-01-09.
  8. Mitsuya H, Yarchoan R, Broder S (1990). Molecular targets for AIDS therapy.. Science 249 (4976): 1533-44. PMID 1699273.
  9. Mitsuya H, Weinhold K, Furman P, St Clair M, Lehrman S, Gallo R, Bolognesi D, Barry D, Broder S (1985). 3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82 (20): 7096-100. PMID 2413459.
  10. Yarchoan R, Klecker R, Weinhold K, Markham P, Lyerly H, Durack D, Gelmann E, Lehrman S, Blum R, Barry D (1986). Administration of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, an inhibitor of HTLV-III/LAV replication, to patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex.. Lancet 1 (8481): 575-80. PMID 2869302.
  11. Furman P, Fyfe J, St Clair M, Weinhold K, Rideout J, Freeman G, Lehrman S, Bolognesi D, Broder S, Mitsuya H (1986). Phosphorylation of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and selective interaction of the 5'-triphosphate with human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83 (21): 8333-7. PMID 2430286.
  12. Mitsuya H, Weinhold K, Furman P, St Clair M, Lehrman S, Gallo R, Bolognesi D, Barry D, Broder S (1985). 3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82 (20): 7096-100. PMID 2413459.
  13. Plessinger M, Miller R. Effects of zidovudine (AZT) and dideoxyinosine (ddI) on human trophoblast cells.. Reprod Toxicol 13 (6): 537-46. PMID 10613402.
  14. Mitsuya H, Weinhold KJ, Furman PA, et al: 3'-azido-3;-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro. Med Sci 1985; 82:7096-7100.
  15. Collins M, Sondel N, Cesar D, Hellerstein M (2004). Effect of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors on mitochondrial DNA synthesis in rats and humans.. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 37 (1): 1132-9. PMID 15319672.
  16. Parker W, White E, Shaddix S, Ross L, Buckheit R, Germany J, Secrist J, Vince R, Shannon W (1991). Mechanism of inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase and human DNA polymerases alpha, beta, and gamma by the 5'-triphosphates of carbovir, 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, 2',3'-dideoxyguanosine and 3'-deoxythymidine. A novel RNA template for the evaluation of antiretroviral drugs.. J Biol Chem 266 (3): 1754-62. PMID 1703154.
  17. Rang H.P., Dale M.M., Ritter J.M. (1995). Pharmacology, 3rd edition, Pearson Professional Ltd.
  18. Balzarini J, Naesens L, Aquaro S, Knispel T, Perno C, De Clercq E, Meier C (1999). Intracellular metabolism of CycloSaligenyl 3'-azido-2', 3'-dideoxythymidine monophosphate, a prodrug of 3'-azido-2', 3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine).. Mol Pharmacol 56 (6): 1354-61. PMID 10570065.
  19. Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Myers C, Broder S (1989). Clinical pharmacology of 3'-azido-2',3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine) and related dideoxynucleosides.. N Engl J Med 321 (11): 726-38. PMID 2671731.
  20. The Best Democracy Money Can Buy by Greg Palast (2002)
  21. People with Aids Health Group v. Burroughs Wellcome Co., 1992 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 578
  22. US Court of Appeals fot the Federal Circuit. Burroughs Wellcome Co. v. Barr Laboratories, 40 F.3d 1223 (Fed. Cir. 1994). University of Houston -- Health Law and Policy Institute. URL accessed on 2007-02-28.
  23. Peter H. Duesberg. Duesberg on AIDS. Peter H. Duesberg. URL accessed on 2006-01-18.
  24. The Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS. URL accessed on 2006-03-29.

References[]

  • Albano, F., Spagnuolo, M. I., Canani, R. B., & Guarino, A. (1999). Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected children in Italy: AIDS Care Vol 11(6) Dec 1999, 711-714.
  • Anderson, P. L., Kakuda, T. N., Kawle, S., & Fletcher, C. V. (2003). Antiviral dynamics and sex differences of zidovudine and lamivudine triphosphate concentrations in HIV-infected individuals: AIDS Vol 17(15) Oct 2003, 2159-2168.
  • Baldeweg, T., Catalan, J., & Gazzard, B. G. (1998). Risk of HIV dementia and opportunistic brain disease in AIDS and zidovudine therapy: Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry Vol 65(1) Jul 1998, 34-41.
  • Baldeweg, T., Catalan, J., Lovett, E., Gruzelier, J., & et al. (1995). Long-term zidovudine reduces neurocognitive deficits in HIV-1 infection: AIDS Vol 9(6) Jun 1995, 589-596.
  • Bell, J. E., Donaldson, Y. K., Lowrie, S., McKenzie, C. A., & et al. (1996). Influence of risk group and zidovudine therapy on the development of HIV encephalitis and cognitive impairment in AIDS ptients: AIDS Vol 10(5) May 1996, 493-499.
  • Bhatta, M. P., Stringer, J. S. A., Phanuphak, P., & Vermund, S. H. (2003). Mother-to-child HIV transmission prevention in Thailand: Physician zidovudine use and willingness to provide care: International Journal of STD & AIDS Vol 14(6) Jun 2003, 404-410.
  • Brouwers, P., Hendricks, M., Lietzau, J. A., Pluda, J. M., & et al. (1997). Effect of combination therapy with zidovudine and didanosine on neuropsychological functioning in patients with symptomatic HIV disease: A comparison of simultaneous and alternating regimens: AIDS Vol 11(1) Jan 1997, 59-66.
  • Bucciardini, R., Wu, A. W., Floridia, M., Fragola, V., Ricciardulli, D., Tomino, C., et al. (2000). Quality of life outcomes of combination zidovudine-didanosine-nevirapine and zidovudine-didanosine for antiretroviral-naive advanced HIV-infected patients: AIDS Vol 14(16) Nov 2000, 2567-2574.
  • Busidan, Y., & Dow-Edwards, D. L. (1999). Neurobehavioral effects of perinatal AZT exposure in Sprague-Dawley weaning rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 64(3) Nov 1999, 479-485.
  • Busidan, Y., & Dow-Edwards, D. L. (1999). Neurobehavioral effects of prenatal AZT exposure in Sprague-Dawley adult rats: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 21(4) Jul-Aug 1999, 359-363.
  • Calamandrei, G., Rufini, O., Valanzano, A., & Puopolo, M. (2002). Long-term effects of developmental exposure to zidovudine on exploratory behavior and novelty discrimination in CD-1 mice: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 24(4) Jul-Aug 2002, 529-540.
  • Calamandrei, G., Venerosi, A., Branchi, I., Chiarotti, F., Verdina, A., Bucci, F., et al. (1999). Effects of prenatal AZT on mouse neurobehavioral development and passive avoidance learning: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 21(1) Jan-Feb 1999, 29-40.
  • Catt, S., Stygall, J., & Catalan, J. (1995). Acceptance of zidovudine (AZT) in early HIV disease: The role of health beliefs: AIDS Care Vol 7(2) 1995, 229-235.
  • Culnane, M., Fowler, M., Lee, S. S., McSherry, G., Brady, M., O'Donnell, K., et al. (1999). Lack of long-term effects of in utero exposure to zidovudine among uninfected children born to HIV-infected women: JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association Vol 281(2) Jan 1999, 151-157.
  • Culnane, M., Fowler, M., & Oleske, J. (1999). Infant growth after in utero exposure: Reply: JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association Vol 282(6) Aug 1999, 528-529.
  • De Ronchi, D., Lazzari, C., Rucci, P., & Cangialosi, A. (1996). Neurocognitive effects of zidovudine and 2',3'-dideoxyinosine during the treatment of asymptomatic and symptomatic HIV-1 seropositive patients. Comparison with non-treated patients: Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental Vol 11(5) Sep-Oct 1996, 415-420.
  • Dursun, S. M., Handley, S. L., & Freeman, S. (1993). Anti-AIDS agents AZT and TIBO (R 82913) reduce 5-HT-sub-2 receptor-mediated DOI-head-shakes in mice: Journal of Psychopharmacology Vol 7(2) 1993, 215-216.
  • Elovaara, I., Poutianinen, E., Lahdevirta, J., Hokkanen, L., & et al. (1994). Zidovudine reduces intrathecal immunoactivation in patients with early human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: Archives of Neurology Vol 51(9) Sep 1994, 943-950.
  • Ferrando, S. J., Wall, T. L., Batki, S. L., & Sorensen, J. L. (1996). Psychiatric morbidity, illicit drug use and adherence to zidovudine (AZT) among injection drug users with HIV disease: American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Vol 22(4) Nov 1996, 475-487.
  • Freeman, R. C., Rodriguez, G. M., & French, J. F. (1996). Compliance with AZT treatment regimen of HIV-seropositive injection drug users: A neglected issue: AIDS Education and Prevention Vol 8(1) Feb 1996, 58-71.
  • Galgani, S., Balestra, P., Narciso, P., Tozzi, V., Sette, P., Pau, F., et al. (1997). Nimodipine plus zidovudine versus zidovudine alone in the treatment of HIV-1-associated cognitive deficits: AIDS Vol 11(12) Oct 1997, 1520-1521.
  • Garcia-Lerma, G., Soriano, V., Gomez-Cano, M., & Bravo, R. (1996). "Prevalence of zidovudine-resistant HIV-1 among rapid progressors". Comment: AIDS Vol 10(11) Sep 1996, 1292-1293.
  • Garcia-Lerma, G., Soriano, V., Gomez-Cano, M. s., & Bravo, R. (1996). "Prevalence of zidovudine-resistant HIV-1 among rapid progressors". Comment: AIDS Vol 10(11) Sep 1996, 1292-1293.
  • Healton, C., Taylor, S., Burr, C., Dumois, A., & et al. (1996). The impact of patient education about the effect of zidovudine on HIV perinatal transmission: Knowledge gain, attitudes, and behavioral intent among women with and at risk of HIV: American Journal of Preventive Medicine Vol 12(4) Jul-Aug 1996, 47-52.
  • Healton, C., Taylor, S., Messeri, P., Weinberg, G., & Bamji, M. (1999). Effects of ZDV-based patient education on intentions toward ZDV use, HIV testing and reproduction among a US cohort of women: AIDS Care Vol 11(6) Dec 1999, 675-686.
  • Karlsen, N. R., Reinvang, I., & Froland, S. S. (1995). A follow-up study of neuropsychological functioning in AIDS-patients: Prognostic significance and effect of zidovudine therapy: Acta Neurologica Scandinavica Vol 91(3) Mar 1995, 215-221.
  • Kastrissios, H., Suarez, J.-R., Katzenstein, D., Girard, P., Sheiner, L. B., & Blaschke, T. F. (1998). Characterizing patterns of drug-taking behavior with a multiple drug regimen in an AIDS clinical trial: AIDS Vol 12(17) Dec 1998, 2295-2303.
  • Lallemant, M., Jourdain, G., Coeur, S. L., Mary, J. Y., Ngo-Giang-Huong, N., Koetsawang, S., et al. (2004). Single-Dose Perinatal Nevirapine plus Standard Zidovudine to Prevent Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Thailand: New England Journal of Medicine Vol 351(3) Jul 2004, 217-228.
  • Legorreta, A., Yu, A., Chernicoff, H., Gilmore, A., Jordan, J., & Rosenzweig, J. C. (2005). Adherence to combined Lamivudine+Zidovudine versus individual components: A community-based retrospective medicaid claims analysis: AIDS Care Vol 17(8) Nov 2005, 938-948.
  • Lenderking, W. R., Gelber, R. D., Cotton, D. J., Cole, B. F., & et al. (1994). Evaluation of the quality of life associated with zidovudine treatment in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection: New England Journal of Medicine Vol 330(11) Mar 1994, 738-743.
  • Levin, E. D., Brunssen, S., Wolfe, G. W., & Harry, G. J. (2004). Neurobehavioral assessment of mice after developmental AZT exposure: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 26(1) Jan-Feb 2004, 65-71.
  • Llorente, A. M., Van Grop, W. G., Stern, M. J., George, L., Satz, P., Calvillo, G. M., et al. (2001). Long-term effects of high-dose zidovudine treatment on neuropsychological performance in mildly symptomatic HIV-positive patients: Results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled investigation: Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society Vol 7(1) Jan 2001, 27-32.
  • McCance-Katz, E., Rainey, P. M., Friedland, G., Kosten, T. R., & Jatlow, P. (2001). Effect of opioid dependence pharmacotherapies on zidovudine disposition: The American Journal on Addictions Vol 10(4) Fal 2001, 296-307.
  • Melnick, S. M., Weedon, J., & Dow-Edwards, D. L. (2005). Perinatal AZT exposure alters the acoustic and tactile startle response to 8-OH-DPAT and apomorphine in adult rats: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 27(4) Jul-Aug 2005, 599-608.
  • Mrus, J. M., & Tsevat, J. (2004). Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions to Reduce Vertical HIV Transmission from Pregnant Women Who Have Not Received Prenatal Care: Medical Decision Making Vol 24(1) Jan-Feb 2004, 30-39.
  • Muma, R. D., Ross, M. W., Parcel, G. S., & Pollard, R. B. (1995). Zidovudine adherence among individuals with HIV infection: AIDS Care Vol 7(4) 1995, 439-447.
  • Nannis, E. D., Temoshok, L. R., Smith, M., & Jenkins, R. A. (1993). Perceptions of AZT: Implications for adherence to medical regimens: Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research Vol 1(1) 1993, 39-54.
  • Nozyce, M., Hoberman, M., Arpadi, S., Wiznia, A., & et al. (1994). A 12-month study of the effects of oral zidovudine on neurodevelopmental functioning in a cohort of vertically HIV-infected inner-city children: AIDS Vol 8(5) May 1994, 635-639.
  • Romanelli, F., Empey, K., & Pomeroy, C. (2002). Macrocytosis as an indicator of medication (Zidovudine) adherence in patients with HIV infection: AIDS Patient Care and STDs Vol 16(9) Sep 2002, 405-411.
  • Rondinini, C., Venerosi, A., Branchi, I., Calamandrei, G., & Alleva, E. (1999). Long-term effects of prenatal 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT) exposure on intermale aggressive behaviour of mice: Psychopharmacology Vol 145(3) Aug 1999, 317-323.
  • Ross, M. W., Jeffords, K., & Gold, J. (1994). Reasons for entry into and understanding of HIV/AIDS clinical trials: A preliminary study: AIDS Care Vol 6(1) 1994, 77-82.
  • Sanchez-Portocarrero, J., Jimenez-Escrig, A., Perez-Cecilia, E., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., & et al. (1996). AIDS dementia complex: Incidence, clinical profile and impact of zidovudine treatment: European Journal of Neurology Vol 3(3) May 1996, 191-197.
  • Schroeder, K., & Barton, S. E. (1994). Patients' attitudes to zidovudine: The influence of the Concorde trial and the media: AIDS Vol 8(9) Sep 1994, 1354-1355.
  • Siegel, K., & Gorey, E. (1997). HIV-infected women: Barriers to AZT use: Social Science & Medicine Vol 45(1) Jul 1997, 15-22.
  • Siegel, K., Lekas, H.-M., Schrimshaw, E. W., & Johnson, J. K. (2001). Factors associated with HIV-infected women's use or intention to use AZT during pregnancy: AIDS Education and Prevention Vol 13(3) Jun 2001, 189-206.
  • Simonds, R. J., Steketee, R., Nesheim, S., Matheson, P., Palumbo, P., Alger, L., et al. (1998). Impact of zidovudine use on risk and risk factors for perinatal transmission of HIV: AIDS Vol 12(3) Feb 1998, 301-308.
  • Sobanski, T., Assion, H.-J., Scholl, H.-P., Hoflich, G., & et al. (1996). Successful zidovudine (AZT) treatment in a case of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1-associated dementia complex: Biological Psychiatry Vol 39(12) Jun 1996, 1065-1066.
  • Solomon, L., Vlahov, D., Astemborski, J., Galai, N., & et al. (1995). Factors associated with initiation of zidovudine in a cohort of injection drug users: Journal of Drug Issues Vol 25(1) Win 1995, 225-233.
  • Sowell, R. L., Phillips, K. D., Murdaugh, C., & Tavokali, A. (1999). Health care providers' influence on HIV-infected women's beliefs and intentions related to AZT therapy: Clinical Nursing Research Vol 8(4) Nov 1999, 336-354.
  • Sowell, R. L., Phillips, K. D., Seals, B. F., Misener, T. R., & Rush, C. (2001). HIV-infected women's experiences and beliefs related to AZT therapy during pregnancy: AIDS Patient Care and STDs Vol 15(4) Apr 2001, 201-209.
  • Staszewski, S., Miller, V., Rehmet, S., Stark, T., & et al. (1996). Virological and immunological analysis of a triple combination pilot study with loviride, lamivudine and zidovudine in HIV-1-infected patients: AIDS Vol 10(5) May 1996, F1-F7.
  • Taha, T. E., Kumwenda, N. I., Hoover, D. R., Fiscus, S. A., Kafulafula, G., Nkhoma, C., et al. (2004). Nevirapine and Zidovudine at Birth to Reduce Perinatal Transmission of HIV in an African Setting A Randomized Controlled Trial: JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association Vol 292(2) Jul 2004, 202-209.
  • Thior, I., Lockman, S., Smeaton, L. M., Shapiro, R. L., Wester, C., Heymann, S. J., et al. (2006). Breastfeeding Plus Infant Zidovudine Prophylaxis for 6 Months vs Formula Feeding Plus Infant Zidovudine for 1 Month to Reduce Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission in Botswana: A Randomized Trial: The Mashi Study: JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association Vol 296(7) Aug 2006, 794-805.
  • Thomas, P., & Borg, M. (1994). Reversible myoclonic encephalopathy revealing the AIDS-dementia complex: Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology Vol 90(2) Feb 1994, 166-169.
  • Tozzi, V., Narciso, P., Galgani, S., Sette, P., & et al. (1993). Effects of zidovudine in 30 patients with mild to end-stage AIDS dementia complex: AIDS Vol 7(5) May 1993, 683-692.
  • Vella, S., Giuliano, M., Floridia, M., Chiesi, A., & et al. (1995). Effect of sex, age and transmission category on the progression to AIDS and survival of zidovudine-treated symptomatic patients: AIDS Vol 9(1) Jan 1995, 51-56.
  • Venerosi, A., Calamandrei, G., & Alleva, E. (2002). Animal models of anti-HIV drugs exposure during pregnancy: Effects on neurobehavioral development: Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry Vol 26(4) May 2002, 747-761.
  • Venerosi, A., Cirulli, F., Capone, F., & Alleva, E. (2003). Prolonged perinatal AZT administration and early maternal separation: Effects on social and emotional behaviour of periadolescent mice: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 74(3) Feb 2003, 671-681.
  • Venerosi, A., Cirulli, F., Lil'p, I. G., Fiore, M., Calamandrei, G., & Alleva, E. (2000). Prolonged perinatal exposure to AZT affects aggressive behaviour of adult CD-1 mice: Psychopharmacology Vol 150(4) Jul 2000, 404-411.
  • Venerosi, A., Valanzano, A., Puopolo, M., & Calamandrei, G. (2005). Neurobehavioral effects of prenatal exposure to AZT: A preliminary investigation with the D1 receptor agonist SKF 38393 in mice: Neurotoxicology and Teratology Vol 27(1) Jan-Feb 2005, 169-173.
  • Williams, M., Bowen, A., Ross, M., Freeman, R., & Elwood, W. (2000). Perceived compliance with AZT dosing among a sample of African-American drug users: International Journal of STD & AIDS Vol 11(1) Jan 2000, 57-63.
  • Wolters, P. L., Brouwers, P., Moss, H. A., & Pizzo, P. A. (1994). Adaptive behavior of children with symptomatic HIV infection before and after zidovudine therapy: Journal of Pediatric Psychology Vol 19(1) Feb 1994, 47-61.
  • Zuccotti, G. V., Agostoni, C., D'Auria, E., Torcoletti, M., & Riva, E. (1999). Infant growth after in utero exposure: JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association Vol 282(6) Aug 1999, 527-528.




This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).
Advertisement